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Nickel
is a chemical
element, with the chemical symbol Ni
and atomic number
28. It is a silvery-white lustrous metal with a slight golden
tinge. It is one of the four ferromagnetic
elements that exist around room temperature, the other three being iron, cobalt and gadolinium.
The
use of nickel has been traced as far back as 3500 BC, but it was first
isolated and classified as a chemical element in 1751 by
Axel Fredrik
Cronstedt, who initially mistook its
ore for a
copper mineral. Its most
important ore minerals are laterites, including
limonite and
garnierite, and
pentlandite. Major
production sites include
Sudbury region in
Canada,
New Caledonia and
Norilsk in
Russia. The metal is
corrosion-resistant, finding many uses in alloys, as a plating, in the
manufacture of coins, magnets and common household utensils, as a
catalyst for
hydrogenation, and in a variety of other applications. Enzymes of
certain life-forms contain nickel as an active center, which makes the
metal an essential nutrient for those life forms.
Atomic
The
electronic configuration of isolated nickel atom is counterintuitive:
direct investigation
finds that the predominant electron
structure of nickel is [Ar] 4s
1 3d
9, which is the
more stable form because of
relativistic
effects. Whereas
Hund's
rule, which works well for most other elements, predicts an
electron shell structure of [Ar] 3d
8 4s
2 (the
symbol [Ar] refers to the
argon-like
core structure). This latter configuration is found in many chemistry
textbooks and is also written as [Ar] 4s
2 3d
8, to
emphasize that the 3d shell is the electron shell being filled by the
highest-energy electrons.
Physical
Nickel is a
silvery-white
metal with a slight golden tinge that takes a high polish. It is one of only
four elements that are magnetic at or near room temperature. Its
Curie temperatureis 355 °C. That is, nickel is non-magnetic above this temperature.The
unit cell of nickel is a
face centered
cube with the lattice parameter of 0.352 nm giving an
atomic radius of
0.124 nm. Nickel belongs to the transition metals and is hard and
ductile.
Isotopes
Main article:
Isotopes of
nickel Naturally occurring nickel is composed of 5 stable
isotopes;
58Ni,
60Ni,
61Ni,
62Ni and
64Ni
with
58Ni being the most abundant (68.077%
natural abundance).
62Ni is
one of the most stable nuclides of all the existing elements, second in
stability only to
56Fe.
18
radioisotopeshave been characterised with the most stable being
59Ni with
a
half-life of
76,000 years,
63Ni with a half-life of 100.1 years, and
56Ni
with a half-life of 6.077 days. All of the remaining
radioactive isotopes
have half-lives that are less than 60 hours and the majority of these
have half-lives that are less than 30 seconds. This element also has 1
meta state.
Nickel-56
is produced by the
silicon
burning process and later set free in large quantities during type
Ia
supernovae.
Indeed, the shape of the
light curve of these
supernovae at intermediate to late-times corresponds to the decay via
electron captureof nickel-56 to
cobalt-56
and ultimately to iron-56.Nickel-59 is a long-lived
cosmogenic radionuclide with a
half-life of 76,000 years.
59Ni has found many applications
in
isotope
geology.
59Ni has been used to date the terrestrial age
of
meteorites and
to determine abundances of extraterrestrial dust in ice and
sediment. Nickel-60 is
the daughter product of the extinct radionuclide
60Fe, which
decays with a half-life of 2.6 million years. Because
60Fe
has such a long half-life, its persistence in materials in the
solar system at
high enough concentrations may have generated observable variations in
the isotopic composition of
60Ni. Therefore, the abundance of
60Ni present in extraterrestrial material may provide
insight into the origin of the solar system and its early history.
Nickel-62 has the
highest
binding
energy per nucleon of any isotope for any element (8.7946
Mev/nucleon). Isotopes heavier than
62Ni cannot be formed by
nuclear fusion without losing energy. Nickel-48, discovered in 1999, is the most
proton-rich heavy element isotope known. With 28
protons and 20
neutrons 48Ni
is "
double
magic" (like
208Pb) and therefore unusually
stable.The isotopes of nickel range in
atomic weight from
48
u (
48Ni)
to 78 u (
78Ni). Nickel-78's half-life was recently measured
to be 110 milliseconds and is believed to be an important isotope
involved in
supernova
nucleosynthesis of elements heavier than iron.
Chemical
See
also:
Category:Nickel
compounds 
Tetracarbonyl nickel
The
most common
oxidation
state of nickel is +2, but compounds of Ni
0, Ni
+,
and Ni
3+ are well known, and Ni
4+ has been
demonstrated
Nickel(0)
Tetracarbonylnickel(Ni(CO)
4), discovered by
Ludwig Mond,is a
volatile liquid at room temperature. On heating, the complex decomposes
back to nickel and carbon monoxide:
Ni(CO)4 
Ni + 4 CO This behavior is exploited in the
Mond process for
purifying nickel, as described above.
[11]The related nickel(0) complex
bis(cyclooctadiene)nickel(0)is a useful catalyst in
organonickel
chemistry due to the easily displaced
cod ligands.
Nickel(II)
Nickel sulfate crystals
Nickel(II)
compounds are known with all common anions, i.e. the sulfide, sulfate,
carbonate, hydroxide, carboxylates, and halides.
Nickel(II)
sulfate is produced in large quantities by dissolving nickel metal
or oxides in sulfuric acid. It exists as both a hexa- and
heptahydrates.This compound is useful for
electroplating nickel.
The four halogens form nickel compounds, all of which
adopt octahedral geometries.
Nickel(II)
chloride is of particular significance, and its behavior is
illustrative of the other halides. Nickel(II) chloride is produced by
dissolving nickel residues in hydrochloric acid. The dichloride is
usually encountered as the green hexahydrate, but it can be dehydrated
to give the yellow anhydrous NiCl
2. Some tetracoordinate
nickel(II) complexes form both tetrahedral and square planar geometries.
The tetrahedral complexes are
paramagnetic and
the square planar complexes are
diamagnetic. This
equilibrium as well as the formation of octahedral complexes contrasts
with the behavior of the divalent complexes of the heavier group 10
metals, palladium(II) and platinum(II), which tend to adopt only
square-planar complexes.
[10]Nickeloceneis known; it has an electron count of 20, making it relatively
unstable.
Nickel(III)
Nickel(III)
oxide is used as the
cathodein many
rechargeable
batteries, including
nickel-cadmium,
nickel-iron,
nickel
hydrogen, and
nickel-metal
hydride, and used by certain manufacturers in
Li-ion batteries
Creation
The stable form of nickel is created in
supernovas via the
r-process.
History
Because the ores of nickel are easily mistaken for ores
of silver, understanding of this metal and its use dates to relatively
recent times. However, the unintentional use of nickel is ancient, and
can be traced back as far as 3500 BC.
Bronzes from what is now
Syria had contained up to 2% nickel.Further, there are Chinese
manuscripts suggesting that "white copper" (
cupronickel, known
as
baitung) was used there between 1700 and 1400 BC. This Paktong
white copper was exported to Britain as early as the 17th century, but
the nickel content of this alloy was not discovered until 1822.In
medieval Germany, a red mineral was found in the
Erzgebirge (Ore
Mountains) which resembled copper ore. However, when miners were unable
to extract any copper from it they blamed a mischievous sprite of German
mythology, Nickel (similar to
Old
Nick) for besetting the copper. They called this ore
Kupfernickelfrom the German
Kupfer for copper. This ore is now known to be
nickeline or
niccolite, a nickel
arsenide. In 1751,
Baron
Axel
Fredrik Cronstedt was attempting to extract copper from
kupfernickel and obtained instead a white metal that he named after the
spirit which had given its name to the mineral, nickel.In modern German,
Kupfernickel or Kupfer-Nickel designates the alloy
cupronickel.
In
the United States, the term "nickel" or "nick" was originally applied
to the copper-nickel Indian cent coin introduced in 1859. Later, the
name designated the three-cent coin introduced in 1865, and the
following year the
five-cent
shield nickel appropriated the designation, which has remained ever
since. Coins of pure nickel were first used in 1881 in
Switzerland.After
its discovery the only source for nickel was the rare Kupfernickel, but
from 1824 on the nickel was obtained as byproduct of
cobalt blue production. The first large scale producer of nickel was
Norway, which exploited
nickel rich
pyrrhotitefrom 1848 on. The introduction of nickel in steel production in 1889
increased the demand for nickel and the nickel deposits of
New Caledonia,
which were discovered in 1865, provided most of the world's supply
between 1875 and 1915. The discovery of the large deposits in the
Sudbury Basin,
Canada in 1883, in
Norilsk-Talnakh,
Russia in 1920 and in the
Merensky Reef,
South Africa in
1924 made large-scale production of nickel possible.
Occurrence
See
also:
Ore genesisand
Category:Nickel
minerals 
Widmanstätten pattern showing the
two forms of Nickel-Iron, Kamacite and Taenite, in an octahedrite
meteorite
The bulk of the nickel mined comes from two types of
ore deposits. The first are
laterites where the
principal ore minerals are nickeliferous
limonite: (Fe, Ni)O(OH)
and
garnierite (a
hydrous nickel silicate): (Ni, Mg)
3Si
2O
5(OH).
The second are magmatic sulfide deposits where the principal ore
mineral is
pentlandite:
(Ni, Fe)
9S
8.
In terms of supply, the
Sudbury region
of
Ontario, Canada,
produces about 30% of the world's supply of nickel. The Sudbury Basin
deposit is theorized to have been created by a
meteorite impact event early
in the
geologic history of Earth.
Russia contains about 40% of the world's known resources at the Norilsk
deposit in
Siberia.
The Russian mining company
MMC Norilsk
Nickel obtains the nickel and the associated
palladium for world
distribution. Other major deposits of nickel are found in
New Caledonia,
France,
Australia,
Cuba, and
Indonesia. Deposits
found in tropical areas typically consist of laterites which are
produced by the intense weathering of
ultramafic igneous rocks and
the resulting secondary concentration of nickel bearing oxide and
silicate minerals.
Recently, a nickel deposit in western
Turkey had been
exploited, with this location being especially convenient for European
smelters, steelmakers and factories. The one locality in the United
States where nickel was commercially mined is
Riddle, Oregon,
where several square miles of nickel-bearing garnierite surface deposits
are located. The mine closed in 1987.In 2005, Russia was the largest
producer of nickel with about one-fifth world share closely followed by
Canada,
Australia and
Indonesia, as reported
by the
British
Geological Survey.
Based on
geophysical evidence,
most of the nickel on Earth is postulated to be concentrated in the
Earth's core.
Kamacite and
taenite are naturally
occurring
alloys of
iron and nickel. For kamacite the alloy is usually in the proportion of
90:10 to 95:5 although impurities such as
cobalt or
carbon may be present,
while for taenite the nickel content is between 20% and 65%. Kamacite
and taenite occur in nickel-iron meteorites.
Extraction and
purification
Nickel output in 2005
Nickel
is recovered through
extractive
metallurgy. Most sulfide ores have traditionally been processed
using
pyrometallurgicaltechniques to produce a
matte for
further refining. Recent advances in
hydrometallurgy have resulted in recent nickel processing operations being developed
using these processes. Most sulfide deposits have traditionally been
processed by concentration through a
froth flotation process followed by
pyrometallurgicalextraction.
Nickel is extracted from its ores by conventional
roasting and reduction processes which yield a metal of greater than 75%
purity. Final purification of nickel oxides is performed via the
Mond process, which
increases the nickel concentrate to greater than 99.99% purity. This
process was patented by L. Mond and was used in South Wales in the 20th
century. Nickel is reacted with
carbon monoxide at around 50 °C to form volatile
nickel carbonyl.
Any impurities remain solid while the nickel carbonyl gas passes into a
large chamber at high temperatures in which tens of thousands of nickel
spheres, called pellets, are constantly stirred. The
nickel carbonyl decomposes, depositing pure nickel onto the nickel spheres.
Alternatively, the nickel carbonyl may be decomposed in a smaller
chamber at 230 °C to create fine nickel powder. The resultant carbon
monoxide is re-circulated through the process. The highly pure nickel
produced by this process is known as carbonyl nickel. A second common
form of refining involves the leaching of the metal matte followed by
the electro-winning of the nickel from solution by plating it onto a
cathode. In many
stainless
steel applications, 75% pure nickel can be used without further
purification depending on the composition of the impurities.
Nickel
sulfide ores undergo flotation (differential flotation if Ni/Fe ratio
is too low) and then are smelted. After producing the nickel matte,
further processing is done via the
Sherritt-Gordon
process. First copper is removed by adding
hydrogen sulfide,
leaving a concentrate of only cobalt and nickel. Solvent extraction
then efficiently separates the cobalt and nickel, with the final nickel
concentration greater than 99%.
Metal value
The market
price of nickel surged throughout 2006 and the early months of 2007; as
of April 5, 2007, the metal was trading at 52,300 USD/
tonne or 1.47 USD/oz.
[26]The price subsequently fell dramatically from these peaks, and as of 19
January 2009 the metal was trading at 10,880 USD/tonne.The
US
nickel coin contains 0.04 oz (1.25 g) of nickel, which at the April
2007 price was worth 6.5 cents, along with 3.75 grams of copper worth
about 3 cents, making the metal value over 9 cents. Since the face value
of a nickel is 5 cents, this made it an attractive target for melting
by people wanting to sell the metals at a profit. However, the
United States
Mint, in anticipation of this practice, implemented new interim
rules on December 14, 2006, subject to public comment for 30 days, which
criminalize the melting and export of cents and nickels.Violators can
be punished with a fine of up to $10,000 and/or imprisoned for a maximum
of five years.
As of June 24, 2009 the melt value of a U.S.
nickel is $0.0363145 which is less than the face value.
Applications
Nickel superalloy jet engine (
RB199) turbine blade
Nickel
is used in many industrial and consumer products, including
stainless steel,
magnets, coinage,
rechargeable
batteries, electric guitar strings and special alloys. It is also
used for plating and as a green tint in glass. Nickel is pre-eminently
an alloy metal, and its chief use is in the nickel steels and nickel
cast irons, of which there are many varieties. It is also widely used in
many other alloys, such as nickel brasses and bronzes, and alloys with
copper, chromium, aluminium, lead, cobalt, silver, and gold.
Nickel plated
neodymium magneton a bracket from a
hard
drive.
The amounts of nickel used for various applications
are 60% used for making nickel steels, 14% used in nickel-copper alloys
and
nickel silver,
9% used to make malleable nickel, nickel clad, Inconel and other
superalloys, 6% used
in plating, 3% use for nickel cast irons, 3% in heat and electric
resistance alloys, such as
Nichrome, 2% used for
nickel brasses and bronzes with the remaining 3% of the nickel
consumption in all other applications combined.
[ In the
laboratory, nickel is frequently used as a catalyst for
hydrogenation,
sometimes
Raney
nickel, a finely divided form of the metal alloyed with
aluminium which
adsorbs
hydrogen gas. Nickel is often used in coins, or occasionally as a substitute for
decorative
silver. The
American
'nickel' five-cent coin is 75%
copper and 25% nickel.
The
Canadian
nickel minted at various periods between 1922-81 was 99.9% nickel,
and was magnetic.Various other nations have historically used and still
use nickel in their coinage.
Nickel is also used in
fire
assay as a collector of
platinum group
elements, as it is capable of full collection of all 6 elements, in
addition to partial collection of
gold. This is seen through
the nature of nickel as a metal, as high throughput nickel mines may run
PGE recovery (primarily
platinumand
palladium),
such as Norilsk in Russia and the Sudbury Basin in Canada.
Nickel foam or nickel
mesh is used in
gas
diffusion electrodes for
alkaline fuel
cells.
Biological role
Although not recognized until
the 1970s, nickel plays important roles in the biology of
microorganisms and plants. In fact
urease (an enzyme which
assists in the hydrolysis of
urea)
contains nickel. The NiFe-
hydrogenases contain
nickel in addition to
iron-sulfur
clusters. Such [NiFe]-hydrogenases characteristically oxidise H
2.
A nickel-tetrapyrrole coenzyme,
F430, is present in the
methyl
coenzyme M reductase which powers
methanogenicarchaea. One of the
carbon monoxide dehydrogenase enzymes consists of an Fe-Ni-S cluster.
Other nickel-containing enzymes include a class of
superoxide
dismutaseand a
glyoxalase.
Toxicity
Exposure to nickel metal and soluble compounds
should not exceed 0.05 mg/cm³ in nickel equivalents per 40-hour work
week. Nickel sulfide fume and dust is believed to be
carcinogenic, and
various other nickel compounds may be as well.
[39][40] Nickel carbonyl,
[Ni(CO)
4], is an extremely toxic gas. The toxicity of metal
carbonyls is a function of both the toxicity of the metal as well as the
carbonyl's ability to give off highly toxic
carbon monoxide gas, and this one is no exception. It is explosive in air.
[41][42] Sensitized individuals may show an
allergyto nickel affecting their skin, also known as
dermatitis.
Sensitivity to nickel may also be present in patients with
pompholyx. Nickel is
an important cause of contact allergy, partly due to its use in
jewellery intended for
pierced ears.
[43] Nickel allergies affecting pierced ears are often marked by itchy, red
skin. Many earrings are now made nickel-free due to this problem. The
amount of nickel which is allowed in products which come into contact
with human skin is regulated by the
European Union.
In 2002 researchers found amounts of nickel being emitted by 1 and 2
Euro coins far in excess of
those standards. This is believed to be due to a
galvanic reaction.It was voted
Allergen of the
Year in 2008 by the American Contact Dermatitis Society.
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