BW Professional Cutter Expert www.tool-tool.com

Tantalum ( /ˈtæntələm/ TAN-təl-əm; previously known as tantalium) is a chemical element with the symbol Ta and atomic number 73. A rare, hard, blue-gray, lustrous transition metal, tantalum is highly corrosion resistant and occurs naturally in the mineral tantalite, always together with the chemically similar niobium. It is part of the refractory metals group, which are widely used as minor component in alloys. The chemical inertness of tantalum makes it a valuable substance for laboratory equipment and a substitute for platinum, but its main use today is in tantalum capacitors in electronic equipment.

Contents

[hide]

• 1 History
• 2 Characteristics
  • 2.1 Physical properties
  • 2.2 Chemical properties
  • 2.3 Isotopes
  • 2.4 Occurrence
• 3 Production
• 4 Applications
  • 4.1 Electronics
  • 4.2 Alloys
  • 4.3 Other uses
• 5 Precautions
• 6 References
• 7 External links

[edit] History

Tantalum was discovered in Sweden in 1802 by Anders Ekeberg. One year earlier, Charles Hatchett had discovered the element columbium.[3] In 1809, the English chemist William Hyde Wollaston compared the oxides derived from both columbium—columbite, with a density 5.918 g/cm3, and tantalum—tantalite, with a density 7.935 g/cm3, and concluded that the two oxides, despite their difference in measured density, were identical. He decided to keep the name tantalum.[4] After Friedrich Wöhler confirmed these results, it was thought that columbium and tantalum were the same element. This conclusion was disputed in 1846 by the German chemist Heinrich Rose, who argued that there were two additional elements in the tantalite sample, and he named them after the children of Tantalus: niobium (from Niobe, the goddess of tears), and pelopium (from Pelops).[5][6] The supposed element "pelopium" was later identified as a mixture of tantalum and niobium, and it was found that the niobium was identical to the columbium already discovered in 1801 by Hattchet.

The differences between tantalum and niobium were demonstrated unequivocally in 1864 by Christian Wilhelm Blomstrand,[7] and Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville, as well as by Louis J. Troost, who determined the empirical formulas of some of their compounds in 1865.[7][8] Further confirmation came from the Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac,[9] in 1866, who proved that there were only two elements. These discoveries did not stop scientists from publishing articles about the so-called ilmenium until 1871.[10] De Marignac was the first to produce the metallic form of tantalum in 1864, when he reduced tantalum chloride by heating it in an atmosphere of hydrogen.[11] Early investigators had been only able to produce impure tantalum, and the first relatively pure ductile metal was produced by Werner von Bolton in 1903. Wires made with metallic tantalum were used for light bulb filaments until tungsten replaced it in widespread use.[12]

The name tantalum was derived from the name of the mythological Tantalus, the father of Niobe in Greek mythology. In the story, he had been punished after death by being condemned to stand knee-deep in water with perfect fruit growing above his head, both of which eternally tantalized him. (If he bent to drink the water, it drained below the level he could reach, and if he reached for the fruit, the branches moved out of his grasp.)[13] Ekeberg wrote "This metal I call tantalum … partly in allusion to its incapacity, when immersed in acid, to absorb any and be saturated."[14]

For decades, the commercial technology for separating tantalum from niobium involved the fractional crystallization of potassium heptafluorotantalate away from potassium oxypentafluoroniobate monohydrate, a process that was discovered by Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac in 1866. This method has been supplanted by solvent extraction from fluoride-containing solutions of tantalum.[8]

[edit] Characteristics

[edit] Physical properties

Tantalum is dark (blue-gray),[15] dense, ductile, very hard, easily fabricated, and highly conductive of heat and electricity. The metal is renowned for its resistance to corrosion by acids; in fact, at temperatures below 150 °C tantalum is almost completely immune to attack by the normally aggressive aqua regia. It can be dissolved with hydrofluoric acid or acidic solutions containing the fluoride ion and sulfur trioxide, as well as with a solution of potassium hydroxide. Tantalum's high melting point of 3017 °C (boiling point 5458 °C) is exceeded only by tungsten , rhenium and osmium for metals, and carbon.

Tantalum exists in two crystalline phases, alpha and beta. The alpha phase is relatively ductile and soft; it has body-centered cubic structure (space group Im3m, lattice constant a = 0.33058 nm), Knoop hardness 200–400 HN and electrical resistivity 15–60 µΩּcm. The beta phase is hard and brittle; its crystal symmetry is tetragonal (space group P42/mnm, a = 1.0194 nm, c = 0.5313 nm), Knoop hardness is 1000–1300 HN and electrical resistivity is relatively high at 170–210 µΩּcm. The beta phase is metastable and converts to the alpha phase upon heating to 750–775 °C. Bulk tantalum is almost entirely alpha phase, and the beta phase usually exists as thin films obtained by magnetron sputtering, chemical vapor deposition or electrochemical deposition from an eutectic molten salt solution.[16]

[edit] Chemical properties

Tantalum forms oxides with the oxidation states +5 (Ta2O5) and +4 (TaO2).[17] The most stable oxidation state is +5, tantalum pentoxide.[17] Tantalum pentoxide is the starting material for several tantalum compounds. The compounds are created by dissolving the pentoxide in basic hydroxide solutions or by melting it in another metal oxide. Such examples are lithium tantalate (LiTaO3) and lanthanum tantalate (LaTaO4). In the lithium tantalate, the tantalate ion TaO−

3 does not occur; instead, this part of the formula represents linkage of TaO7−

6 octahedra to form a three-dimensional perovskite framework; while the lanthanum tantalate contains lone TaO3−

4 tetrahedral groups.[17]

The fluorides of tantalum can be used for its separation from niobium.[18] Tantalum forms halogen compounds in the oxidation states of +5, +4, and +3 of the type TaX5, TaX4, and TaX3, although multi core complexes and substoichiometric compounds are also known.[17][19] Tantalum pentafluoride (TaF5) is a white solid with a melting point of 97.0 °C and tantalum pentachloride (TaCl5) is a white solid with a melting point of 247.4 °C. Tantalum pentachloride is hydrolyzed by water and reacts with additional tantalum at elevated temperatures by forming the black and highly hygroscopic tantalum tetrachloride (TaCl4). While the trihalogen compounds can be obtained by reduction of the pentahalogenes with hydrogen, the dihalogen compounds do not exist.[17] A tantalum-tellurium alloy forms quasicrystals.[17] Tantalum compounds with oxidation states as low as −1 have been reported in 2008.[20]

Like most of the other refractory metals, the hardest known compounds are the stable nitrides and carbides. Tantalum carbide, TaC, like the more commonly used tungsten carbide, is a very hard ceramic that is used in cutting tools. Tantalum(III) nitride is used as a thin film insulator in some microelectronic fabrication processes.[21] Chemists at the Los Alamos National Laboratory in the United States have developed a tantalum carbide-graphite composite material that is one of the hardest materials ever synthesized. Korean researchers have developed an amorphous tantalum-tungsten-copper alloy that is more flexible and two to three times stronger than commonly used steel alloys.[22] There are two tantalum aluminides, TaAl3 and Ta3Al. These are stable, refractory, and reflective, and they have been proposed[23] as coatings for use in infrared wave mirrors.

[edit] Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of tantalum

Natural tantalum consists of two isotopes: 180mTa (0.012%) and 181Ta (99.988%). 181Ta is a stable isotope. 180mTa (m denotes a metastable state) is predicted to decay in three ways: isomeric transition to the ground state of 180Ta, beta decay to 180W, or electron capture to 180Hf. However, radioactivity of this nuclear isomer has never been observed. Only a lower limit on its half life of over 1015 years has been set. The ground state of 180Ta has a half life of only 8 hours. 180mTa is the only naturally occurring nuclear isomer (excluding radiogenic and cosmogenic short-living nuclides). It is also the rarest isotope in the Universe, taking into account the elemental abundance of tantalum and isotopic abundance of 180mTa in the natural mixture of isotopes (and again excluding radiogenic and cosmogenic short-living nuclides).[24]

Tantalum has been examined theoretically as a "salting" material for nuclear weapons (cobalt is the better-known hypothetical salting material). An external shell of 181Ta would be irradiated by the intensive high-energy neutron flux from a hypothetical exploding nuclear weapon. This would transmute the tantalum into the radioactive isotope 182Ta, which has a half-life of 114.4 days and produces gamma rays with approximately 1.12 million electron-volts (MeV) of energy apiece, which would significantly increase the radioactivity of the nuclear fallout from the explosion for several months. Such "salted" weapons have never been built or tested, as far as is publicly known, and certainly never used as weapons.[25]

[edit] Occurrence

Tantalite, Pilbara district, Australia

Tantalum is estimated to make up about 1 ppm[26] or 2 ppm[19] of the Earth's crust by weight. There are many species of tantalum minerals, only some of which are so far being used by industry as raw materials: tantalite, microlite, wodginite, euxenite, polycrase. Tantalite (Fe,Mn) Ta2O6 is the most important mineral for tantalum extraction. Tantalite has the same mineral structure as columbite (Fe,Mn) (Ta,Nb)2O6; when there is more Ta than Nb it is called tantalite and when there is more Nb than Ta is it called columbite (or niobite). The high density of tantalite and other tantalum containing minerals makes the use of gravitational separation the best method. Other minerals include samarskite and fergusonite.

The primary mining of tantalum is in Australia, where the largest producer, Talison Minerals, now known as Global Advanced Metals, operates the Wodgina mine. Mining at Wodgina was suspended in late-2008 due to the Global Financial Crisis and is scheduled to reopen in mid 2011.[27] This mine produced tantalite, from which tantalum oxide is separated.[28] Whereas the large-scale producers of niobium are in Brazil and Canada, the ore there also yields a small percentage of tantalum. Some other countries such as China, Ethiopia, and Mozambique mine ores with a higher percentage of tantalum, and they produce a significant percentage of the world's output of it. Tantalum is also produced in Thailand and Malaysia as a by-product of the tin mining there. During gravitational separation of the ores from placer deposits, not only is Cassiterite (SnO2) found, but a small percentage of tantalite also included. The slag from the tin smelters then contains economically useful amounts of tantalum, which is leached from the slag.[8][29] Future sources of supply of tantalum, in order of estimated size, are being explored in Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Greenland, China, Mozambique, Canada, Australia, the United States, Finland, and Brazil.[30][31]

In central Africa the colloquial term coltan is used to refer to niobium (COLumbium)-containing and TANtalum-containing minerals. The United States Geological Survey reports in its 2006 yearbook that this region produced a little less than 1% of the world's tantalum output for the past four years, peaking at 10% in 2000 and 2008.[29] Ethical questions have been raised about responsible corporate behavior, human rights, and endangering wildlife, due to the exploitation of resources such as coltan in the armed conflict regions of the Congo Basin.[32][33][34][35]

According to an October 23, 2003 United Nations report,[36] the smuggling and exportation of coltan has helped fuel the war in the Congo, a crisis that has resulted in approximately 5.4 million deaths since 1998[37] – making it the world’s deadliest documented conflict since World War II.

[edit] Production

Several steps are involved in the extraction of tantalum from tantalite: First the mineral is crushed and concentrated by gravity separation. This is generally carried out near the mine site. Further processing by chemical separation is usually done by treating the ores with a mixture of hydrofluoric acid and sulfuric acid at over 90°C. This causes the tantalum and niobium to dissolve as complex fluorides, which can be separated from the impurities.

Ta2O5 + 14 HF → 2 H2[TaF7] + 5 H2O

Nb2O5 + 10 HF → 2 H2[NbOF5] + 3 H2O

The first industrial-scale separation, developed by de Marignac, used the difference in solubility between the complex niobium and tantalum fluorides K2[NbOF5]•H2O (dipotassium oxypentafluoroniobate monohydrate) and K2[TaF7] (dipotassium heptafluorotantalate) in water. Newer processes use the liquid extraction of the fluorides from aqueous solution by organic solvents such as cyclohexanone.[18] The complex niobium and tantalum fluorides are extracted separately from the organic solvent with water, and either precipitated by the addition of potassium fluoride to produce a potassium fluoride complex, or precipitated with ammonia as the pentoxide:[17]

H2[TaF7] + KF → K2[TaF7]↓ + HF

2 H2[TaF7] + 14 NH4OH → Ta2O5↓ + 14 NH4F + 9 H2O

The resulting potassium fluorotantalate salt is generally treated by reduction with molten sodium to produce a coarse tantalum powder.[38]

[edit] Applications

[edit] Electronics

Tantalum electrolytic capacitor

The major use for tantalum, as the metal powder, is in the production of electronic components, mainly capacitors and some high-power resistors.[39] Tantalum electrolytic capacitors exploit the tendency of tantalum to form a protective oxide surface layer, using tantalum powder, pressed into a pellet shape, as one "plate" of the capacitor, the oxide as the dielectric, and an electrolytic solution or conductive solid as the other "plate". Because the dielectric layer can be very thin (thinner than the similar layer in, for instance, an aluminium electrolytic capacitor), a high capacitance can be achieved in a small volume. Because of the size and weight advantages, tantalum capacitors are attractive for portable telephones, personal computers, and automotive electronics.[40]

[edit] Alloys

Tantalum is also used to produce a variety of alloys that have high melting points, are strong and have good ductility. Alloyed with other metals, it is also used in making carbide tools for metalworking equipment and in the production of superalloys for jet engine components, chemical process equipment, nuclear reactors, and missile parts.[40][41] Because of its ductility, tantalum can be drawn into fine wires or filaments, which are used for evaporating metals such as aluminium. Since it resists attack by body fluids and is nonirritating, tantalum is widely used in making surgical instruments and implants. For example, porous tantalum coatings are used in the construction of orthopedic implants due to tantalum's ability to form a direct bond to hard tissue.[42]

Tantalum is inert against most acids except hydrofluoric acid and hot sulfuric acid, also hot alkaline solutions cause tantalum to corrode. This property makes it an ideal metal for chemical reaction vessels and pipes for corrosive liquids. Heat exchanging coils for the steam heating of hydrochloric acid are made from tantalum.[43] Tantalum was extensively used in the production of ultra high frequency electron tubes for radio transmitters. The tantalum is capable of capturing oxygen and nitrogen by forming nitrides and oxides and therefore helps to sustain the high vacuum needed for the tubes.[18][43]

[edit] Other uses

The oxide is used to make special high refractive index glass for camera lenses.[44] The high melting point and oxidation resistance lead to the use of the metal in the production of vacuum furnace parts. Due to its high density, shaped charge and explosively formed penetrator liners have been constructed from tantalum.[45] Tantalum greatly increases the armor penetration capabilities of a shaped charge due to its high density and high melting point.[46][47] It is also occasionally used in precious watches e.g. from Hublot, Montblanc and Panerai. Tantalum is also highly bioinert and is used as an orthopedic implant material.[48]

[edit] Precautions

Compounds containing tantalum are rarely encountered in the laboratory. The metal is highly biocompatible and is used for body implants and coatings, therefore attention may be focused on other elements or the physical nature of the chemical compound.[49] A single study[50] is the only reference in literature linking tantalum to local sarcomas. It is possible the result was due to other factors not considered in the study. The study was quoted in IARC Monograph vol. 74 which includes the following "Note to the reader": "Inclusion of an agent in the Monographs does not imply that it is a carcinogen, only that the published data have been examined."[51]

[edit] References

1. ^ Moseley, P. T.; Seabrook, C. J. (1973). "The crystal structure of β-tantalum". Acta Crystallographica Section B Structural Crystallography and Crystal Chemistry 29: 1170–1171. doi:10.1107/S0567740873004140.  edit
2. ^ Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition, CRC press.
3. ^ Griffith, William P.; Morris, Peter J. T. (2003). "Charles Hatchett FRS (1765-1847), Chemist and Discoverer of Niobium". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 57 (3): 299. doi:10.1098/rsnr.2003.0216. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3557720. 
4. ^ Wollaston, William Hyde (1809). "On the Identity of Columbium and Tantalum". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 99: 246–252. doi:10.1098/rstl.1809.0017. http://www.jstor.org/stable/107264. 
5. ^ Rose, Heinrich (1844). "Ueber die Zusammensetzung der Tantalite und ein im Tantalite von Baiern enthaltenes neues Metall" (in German). Annalen der Physik 139 (10): 317–341. doi:10.1002/andp.18441391006. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15148n/f327.table. 
6. ^ Rose, Heinrich (1847). "Ueber die Säure im Columbit von Nordamérika" (in German). Annalen der Physik 146 (4): 572–577. doi:10.1002/andp.18471460410. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15155x/f586.table. 
7. ^ a b Marignac, Blomstrand, H. Deville, L. Troost und R. Hermann (1866). "Tantalsäure, Niobsäure, (Ilmensäure) und Titansäure". Fresenius' Journal of Analytical Chemistry 5 (1): 384–389. doi:10.1007/BF01302537. 
8. ^ a b c Gupta, C. K.; Suri, A. K. (1994). Extractive Metallurgy of Niobium. CRC Press. ISBN 0849360714. 
9. ^ Marignac, M. C. (1866). "Recherches sur les combinaisons du niobium" (in French). Annales de chimie et de physique 4 (8): 7–75. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k34818t/f4.table. 
10. ^ Hermann, R. (1871). "Fortgesetzte Untersuchungen über die Verbindungen von Ilmenium und Niobium, sowie über die Zusammensetzung der Niobmineralien (Further research about the compounds of ilmenium and niobium, as well as the composition of niobium minerals)" (in German). Journal für Praktische Chemie 3 (1): 373–427. doi:10.1002/prac.18710030137. 
11. ^ "Niobium". Universidade de Coimbra. http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/st2.5/scenes-e/elem/e04100.html. Retrieved 2008-09-05. 
12. ^ Bowers, B. (2001). "Scanning Our Past from London The Filament Lamp and New Materials". Proceedings of the IEEE 89 (3): 413. doi:10.1109/5.915382. 
13. ^ Aycan, Mugla, Sule (2005). "Chemistry Education and Mythology". Journal of Social Sciences 1 (4): 238– 239. doi:10.3844/jssp.2005.238.239. 
14. ^ Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan. (1997), Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.), Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, p. 1138, ISBN 0080379419 
15. ^ Colakis, Marianthe; Masello, Mary Joan (2007-06-30). "Tantalum". Classical Mythology & More: A Reader Workbook. ISBN 9780865165731. http://books.google.com/?id=5o3Lr2Swz8sC&pg=PA204. 
16. ^ Lee, S (2004). "Texture, structure and phase transformation in sputter beta tantalum coating". Surface and Coatings Technology 177-178: 44. doi:10.1016/j.surfcoat.2003.06.008. 
17. ^ a b c d e f g Holleman, A. F., Wiberg, E., Wiberg, N. (2007). Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie, 102nd ed.. de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-017770-1. 
18. ^ a b c Soisson, Donald J.; McLafferty, J. J.; Pierret, James A. (1961). "Staff-Industry Collaborative Report: Tantalum and Niobium". Ind. Eng. Chem. 53 (11): 861–868. doi:10.1021/ie50623a016. 
19. ^ a b Agulyansky, Anatoly (2004). The Chemistry of Tantalum and Niobium Fluoride Compounds. Elsevier. ISBN 9780444516046. http://books.google.com/?id=Z-4QXNB5Hp8C. Retrieved 2008-09-02. 

20. ^ Morse, P. M. et al. (2008). "Ethylene Complexes of the Early Transition Metals: Crystal Structures of [HfEt4(C2H4)2− ] and the Negative-Oxidation-State Species [TaHEt(C2H4)3−

    3] and [WH(C2H4)3−

    4]". Organometallics 27 (5): 984. doi:10.1021/om701189e. 
21. ^ Tsukimoto, S.; Moriyama, M.; Murakami, Masanori (1961). "Microstructure of amorphous tantalum nitride thin films". Thin Solid Films 460 (1-2): 222–226. doi:10.1016/j.tsf.2004.01.073. 
22. ^ Arirang, TV (2005-05-06). "Researchers Develop New Alloy". Digital Chosunilbo (English Edition) : Daily News in English About Korea. Archived from the original on March 28, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080328220843/http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200505/200505060005.html. Retrieved 2008-12-22. 
23. ^ Braun, Hilarion "Substance for front surface mirror" U.S. Patent 5,923,464, Issued on July 13, 1999
24. ^ Georges, Audi (2003). "The NUBASE Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties". Nuclear Physics A (Atomic Mass Data Center) 729: 3–128. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001. 
25. ^ Win, David Tin; Masum, Al (2003) (PDF). Weapons of Mass Destruction. 6. pp. 199– 219. http://www.journal.au.edu/au_techno/2003/apr2003/aujt6-4_article07.pdf. 
26. ^ Emsley, John (2001). "Tantalum". Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford, England, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 420. ISBN 0198503407. 
27. ^ "Talison Tantalum eyes mid-2011 Wodgina restart 2010-06-09". Reuters. 2010-06-09. http://af.reuters.com/article/drcNews/idAFLDE6530TW20100609. Retrieved 2010-08-27. 
28. ^ "Wodgina Operations". Talison Minerals. 2008. http://www.talison.com.au/operations.html. Retrieved 2009-07-31. [dead link]
29. ^ a b Papp, John F. (2006). "2006 Minerals Yearbook Nb & Ta". US Geological Survey. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/niobium/#pubs. Retrieved 2008-06-03. 
30. ^ "Tantalum supplement" (PDF). Mining Journal. 2007-November. http://www.noventa.net/pdf/presentations/tanatalumSCR_presentation.pdf. Retrieved 2008-06-03. 
31. ^ "International tantalum resources — exploration and mining" (pdf). GSWA Mineral Resources Bulletin 22 (10). http://www.doir.wa.gov.au/documents/gswa/gsdMRB_22_chap10.pdf. 
32. ^ Hayes, Karen; Burge, Richard. Coltan Mining in the Democratic Republic of Congo: How tantalum-using industries can commit to the reconstruction of the DRC. 1–64. ISBN 1903703107. 
33. ^ "Congo's Bloody Coltan". http://www.pulitzercenter.org/openitem.cfm?id=177. Retrieved 2009-08-08. 
34. ^ "Congo War and the Role of Coltan". http://www1.american.edu/ted/ice/congo-coltan.htm. Retrieved 2009-08-08. 
35. ^ "Coltan mining in the Congo River Basin". http://www.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/congo_basin_forests/problems/mining/coltan_mining/. Retrieved 2009-08-08. 
36. ^ "S/2003/1027". 2003-10-26. http://www.un.org/Docs/journal/asp/ws.asp?m=S%2F2003%2F1027. Retrieved 2008-04-19. 
37. ^ "Special Report: Congo". International Rescue Committee. http://www.theirc.org/special-report/congo-forgotten-crisis.html. Retrieved 2008-04-19. 
38. ^ "Extraction/refining". T.I.C.. http://tanb.org/tantalum. Retrieved 2009-07-07. 
39. ^ "What is a resistor?". http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-resistor.htm. Retrieved 2009-08-08. 
40. ^ a b "Commodity Report 2008: Tantalum" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/niobium/mcs-2008-tanta.pdf. Retrieved 2008-10-24. 
41. ^ Buckman Jr., R. W. (2000). "New applications for tantalum and tantalum alloys". JOM Journal of the Minerals, Metals and Materials Society 52 (3): 40. doi:10.1007/s11837-000-0100-6. 
42. ^ Cohen, R. (2006). "Applications of porous tantalum in total hip arthroplasty". Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons 14: 646. 
43. ^ a b Balke, Clarence W.. "Columbium and Tantalum". Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 20 (10): 1166. 
44. ^ Musikant, Solomon (1985). "Optical Glas Composition". Optical Materials: An Introduction to Selection and Application. CRC Press. p. 28. ISBN 9780824773090. http://books.google.com/?id=iJEXMF3JBtQC&pg=PA28. 
45. ^ Nemat-Nasser, Sia; Isaacs, Jon B.; Liu, Mingqi (1998). "Microstructure of high-strain, high-strain-rate deformed tantalum". Acta Materialia 46: 1307. doi:10.1016/S1359-6454(97)00746-5. 
46. ^ Walters, William; Cooch, William; Burkins, Matthew (2001). "The penetration resistance of a titanium alloy against jets from tantalum shaped charge liners". International Journal of Impact Engineering 26: 823. doi:10.1016/S0734-743X(01)00135-X. 
47. ^ Russell, Alan M.; Lee, Kok Loong (2005). Structure-property relations in nonferrous metals. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Interscience. p. 218. ISBN 9780471649526. http://books.google.com/?id=fIu58uZTE-gC&pg=PA129&lpg=PP128#PPA218. 
48. ^ Black, J. (1994). "Biological performance of tantalum". Clin Mater. 16 (3): 167–173. doi:10.1016/0267-6605(94)90113-9. PMID /10172264. 
49. ^ Matsuno H, Yokoyama A, Watari F, Uo M, Kawasaki T. (2001). "Biocompatibility and osteogenesis of refractory metal implants, titanium, hafnium, niobium, tantalum and rhenium. Biocompatibility of tantalum". Biomaterials 22: 1253. doi:10.1016/S0142-9612(00)00275-1. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11336297. 
50. ^ Oppenheimer, B.S.; Oppenheimer, E.T.; Danishefsky, I.; Stout, A.P. (1956). "Carcinogenic effects of metals in rodent". Cancer Research 16: 439. http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/cgi/reprint/16/5/439.pdf. 
51. ^ "Surgical implants and other foreign bodies". IARC. 1999. http://www.inchem.org/documents/iarc/vol74/implants.html. Retrieved 2009-06-03.



引用出處： 

 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantalum

歡迎來到Bewise Inc.的世界，首先恭喜您來到這接受新的資訊讓產業更有競爭力，我們是提供專業刀具製造商，應對客戶高品質的刀具需求，我們可以協助客戶滿足您對產業的不同要求，我們有能力達到非常卓越的客戶需求品質，這是現有相關技術無法比擬的，我們成功的滿足了各行各業的要求，包括：精密HSS DIN切削刀具、協助客戶設計刀具流程、DIN or JIS 鎢鋼切削刀具設計、NAS986 NAS965 NAS897 NAS937orNAS907 航太切削刀具,NAS航太刀具設計、超高硬度的切削刀具、醫療配件刀具設計、複合式再研磨機、PCD地板專用企口鑽石組合刀具、粉末造粒成型機、主機版專用頂級電桿、PCD V-Cut刀、捨棄式圓鋸片組、粉末成型機、航空機械鉸刀、主機版專用頂級電感、’汽車業刀具設計、電子產業鑽石刀具、木工產業鑽石刀具、銑刀與切斷複合再研磨機、銑刀與鑽頭複合再研磨機、銑刀與螺絲攻複合再研磨機等等。我們的產品涵蓋了從民生刀具到工業級的刀具設計；從微細刀具到大型刀具；從小型生產到大型量產；全自動整合；我們的技術可提供您連續生產的效能，我們整體的服務及卓越的技術，恭迎您親自體驗！！  

BW Bewise Inc. Willy Chen willy@tool-tool.com  bw@tool-tool.com  www.tool-tool.com skype:willy_chen_bw mobile:0937-618-190 Head &Administration Office No.13,Shiang Shang 2nd St., West Chiu Taichung,Taiwan 40356 http://www.tool-tool.com/ / FAX:+886 4 2471 4839 N.Branch 5F,No.460,Fu Shin North Rd.,Taipei,Taiwan S.Branch No.24,Sec.1,Chia Pu East Rd.,Taipao City,Chiayi Hsien,Taiwan

Welcome to BW tool world! We are an experienced tool maker specialized in cutting tools. We focus on what you need and endeavor to research the best cutter to satisfy users’ demand. Our customers involve wide range of industries, like mold & die, aerospace, electronic, machinery, etc. We are professional expert in cutting field. We would like to solve every problem from you. Please feel free to contact us, its our pleasure to serve for you. BW product including: cutting tool、aerospace tool .HSS  DIN Cutting tool、Carbide end mills、Carbide cutting tool、NAS Cutting tool、NAS986 NAS965 NAS897 NAS937orNAS907 Cutting Tools,Carbide end mill、disc milling cutter,Aerospace cutting tool、hss drill’Фрезеры’Carbide drill、High speed steel、Compound Sharpener’Milling cutter、INDUCTORS FOR PCD’CVDD(Chemical Vapor Deposition Diamond )’PCBN (Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride) ’Core drill、Tapered end mills、CVD Diamond Tools Inserts’PCD Edge-Beveling Cutter(Golden Finger’PCD V-Cutter’PCD Wood tools’PCD Cutting tools’PCD Circular Saw Blade’PVDD End Mills’diamond tool. INDUCTORS FOR PCD . POWDER FORMING MACHINE ‘Single Crystal Diamond ‘Metric end mills、Miniature end mills、Специальные режущие инструменты ‘Пустотелое сверло ‘Pilot reamer、Fraises’Fresas con mango’ PCD (Polycrystalline diamond) ‘Frese’POWDER FORMING MACHINE’Electronics cutter、Step drill、Metal cutting saw、Double margin drill、Gun barrel、Angle milling cutter、Carbide burrs、Carbide tipped cutter、Chamfering tool、IC card engraving cutter、Side cutter、Staple Cutter’PCD diamond cutter specialized in grooving floors’V-Cut PCD Circular Diamond Tipped Saw Blade with Indexable Insert’ PCD Diamond Tool’ Saw Blade with Indexable Insert’NAS tool、DIN or JIS tool、Special tool、Metal slitting saws、Shell end mills、Side and face milling cutters、Side chip clearance saws、Long end mills’end mill grinder’drill grinder’sharpener、Stub roughing end mills、Dovetail milling cutters、Carbide slot drills、Carbide torus cutters、Angel carbide end mills、Carbide torus cutters、Carbide ball-nosed slot drills、Mould cutter、Tool manufacturer. 

Bewise Inc.  www.tool-tool.com

ようこそＢｅｗｉｓｅ　Ｉｎｃ.の世界へお越し下さいませ、先ず御目出度たいのは新たな

情報を受け取って頂き、もっと各産業に競争力プラス展開。

弊社は専門なエンド・ミルの製造メーカーで、客先に色んな分野のニーズ、

豊富なパリエーションを満足させ、特にハイテク品質要求にサポート致します。

弊社は各領域に供給できる内容は：

（１）精密ＨＳＳエンド・ミルのＲ＆Ｄ

（２）Carbide Cutting tools設計

（３）鎢鋼エンド・ミル設計

（４）航空エンド・ミル設計

（５）超高硬度エンド・ミル

（６）ダイヤモンド・エンド・ミル

（７）医療用品エンド・ミル設計

（８）自動車部品＆材料加工向けエンド・ミル設計

弊社の製品の供給調達機能は：

（１）生活産業～ハイテク工業までのエンド・ミル設計

（２）ミクロ・エンド・ミル～大型エンド・ミル供給

（３）小Ｌｏｔ生産～大量発注対応供給

（４）オートメーション整備調達

（５）スポット対応～流れ生産対応

弊社の全般供給体制及び技術自慢の総合専門製造メーカーに貴方のご体験を御待ちしております。   

Bewise Inc. talaşlı imalat sanayinde en fazla kullanılan ve üç eksende (x,y,z) talaş kaldırabilen freze takımlarından olan Parmak Freze imalatçısıdır. Çok geniş ürün yelpazesine sahip olan firmanın başlıca ürünlerini Karbür Parmak Frezeler, Kalıpçı Frezeleri, Kaba Talaş Frezeleri, Konik Alın Frezeler, Köşe Radyüs Frezeler, İki Ağızlı Kısa ve Uzun Küresel Frezeler, İç Bükey Frezeler vb. şeklinde sıralayabiliriz.

BW специализируется в научных исследованиях и разработках, и снабжаем самым высокотехнологичным карбидовым материалом для поставки режущих / фрезеровочных инструментов для почвы, воздушного пространства и электронной индустрии. В нашу основную продукцию входит твердый карбид / быстрорежущая сталь, а также двигатели, микроэлектрические дрели, IC картонорезальные машины, фрезы для гравирования, режущие пилы, фрезеры-расширители, фрезеры-расширители с резцом, дрели, резаки форм для шлицевого вала / звездочки роликовой цепи, и специальные нано инструменты. Пожалуйста, посетите сайт  www.tool-tool.com  для получения большей информации.

BW is specialized in R&D and sourcing the most advanced carbide material with high-tech coating to supply cutting / milling tool for mould & die, aero space and electronic industry. Our main products include solid carbide / HSS end mills, micro electronic drill, IC card cutter, engraving cutter, shell end mills, cutting saw, reamer, thread reamer, leading drill, involute gear cutter for spur wheel, rack and worm milling cutter, thread milling cutter, form cutters for spline shaft/roller chain sprocket, and special tool, with nano grade. Please visit our web  www.tool-tool.com  for more info.