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Terbium ( /ˈtɜrbiəm/ TUR-bee-əm) is a chemical element with the symbol Tb and atomic number 65. It is a silvery-white rare earth metal that is malleable, ductile and soft enough to be cut with a knife. Terbium is never found in nature as a free element, but it is contained in many minerals, including cerite, gadolinite, monazite, xenotime and euxenite.

Terbium is used to dope calcium fluoride, calcium tungstate and strontium molybdate, materials that are used in solid-state devices, and as a crystal stabilizer of fuel cells which operate at elevated temperatures. As a component of Terfenol-D (an alloy that expands and contracts when exposed to magnetic fields more than any other alloy), terbium is of use in actuators, in naval sonar systems and in sensors.

The largest consumer of the world's terbium supply is in "green" phosphors (which are usually yellow). Terbium oxide is in fluorescent lamps and TV tubes. Terbium "green" phosphors (which fluoresce a brilliant lemon-yellow) are combined with divalent europium blue phosphors and trivalent europium red phosphors to provide "trichromatic" lighting technology, a high-efficiency white light used for standard illumination in indoor lighting.

Contents

[hide]

• 1 Characteristics
  • 1.1 Physical properties
  • 1.2 Chemical properties
  • 1.3 Compounds
  • 1.4 Isotopes
• 2 History
• 3 Occurrence
• 4 Production
• 5 Applications
• 6 Precautions
• 7 References
• 8 External links

[edit] Characteristics

[edit] Physical properties

Terbium is a silvery-white rare earth metal that is malleable, ductile and soft enough to be cut with a knife. It is relatively stable in air as compared to other lanthanides.[1] Terbium exists in two crystal allotropes with a transformation temperature of 1289 °C between them.[2]

The terbium(III) cation is brilliantly fluorescent, in a bright lemon-yellow color that is the result of a strong green emission line in combination with other lines in the orange and red. The yttrofluorite variety of the mineral fluorite owes its creamy-yellow fluorescence in part to terbium. Terbium easily oxidizes, and is therefore used in its elemental form specifically for research. Single Tb atoms have been isolated by implanting them into fullerene molecules.[3]

Terbium has a simple ferromagnetic ordering at temperatures below 219 K. Above 219 K, it turns into a helical antiferromagnetic state in which all of the atomic moments in a particular basal plane layer are parallel, and oriented at a fixed angle to the moments of adjacent layers. This unusual antiferromagnetism transforms into a disordered paramagnetic state at 230 K.[4]

[edit] Chemical properties

The most common valence state of terbium is +3, as in Tb2O3. The +4 state is known in TbO2 and TbF4.[5][6] Terbium burns readily to form a mixed terbium(III,IV) oxide:

8 Tb + 7 O2 → 2 Tb4O7

In solution, terbium forms only trivalent ions. Terbium is quite electropositive and reacts slowly with cold water and quite quickly with hot water to form terbium hydroxide:

2 Tb (s) + 6 H2O (l) → 2 Tb(OH)3 (aq) + 3H2 (g)

Terbium metal reacts with all the halogens:

2 Tb (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 TbF3 (s) [white]2 Tb (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 TbCl3 (s) [white]2 Tb (s) + 3 Br2 (g) → 2 TbBr3 (s) [white]2 Tb (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 TbI3 (s)

Terbium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the pale pink Tb(III) ions, which exist as a [Tb(OH2)9]3+ complexes:[7]

2 Tb (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Tb3+ (aq) + 3 SO2−

4 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)

[edit] Compounds

See also: Category:Terbium compounds

Terbium combines with nitrogen, carbon, sulfur, phosphorus, boron, selenium, silicon and arsenic at elevated temperatures, forming various binary compounds such as TbH2, TbH3, TbB2, Tb2S3, TbSe, TbTe and TbN.[6] In those compounds, Tb mostly exhibit oxidation states +3 and sometimes +2. Terbium(II) halogenides are obtained by annealing Tb(III) halogenides in presence of metallic Tb in tantalum containers. Terbium also forms sesquichloride Tb2Cl3, which can be further reduced to TbCl by annealing at 800 °C. This terbium(I) chloride forms platelets with layered graphite-like structure.[8]

Other compounds include

• Chlorides: TbCl3
• Bromides: TbBr3
• Iodides: TbI3
• Fluorides: TbF3, TbF4

Terbium(IV) fluoride is a strong fluorinating agent, emitting relatively pure atomic fluorine when heated[9] rather than the mixture of fluoride vapors emitted from CoF3 or CeF4.

[edit] Isotopes

Main article: isotopes of terbium

Naturally occurring terbium is composed of 1 stable isotope, 159Tb. 33 radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being 158Tb with a half-life of 180 years, 157Tb with a half-life of 71 years, and 160Tb with a half-life of 72.3 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 6.907 days, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 24 seconds. This element also has 18 meta states, with the most stable being 156m1Tb (t½ 24.4 hours), 154m2Tb (t½ 22.7 hours) and 154m1Tb (t½ 9.4 hours).

The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 159Tb, is electron capture, and the primary mode after is beta minus decay. The primary decay products before 159Tb are element Gd (gadolinium) isotopes, and the primary products after are element Dy (dysprosium) isotopes.

[edit] History

Terbium was discovered in 1843 by Swedish chemist Carl Gustaf Mosander, who detected it as an impurity in Yttrium oxide, Y2O3, and named after the village Ytterby in Sweden. It was not isolated in pure form until the recent advent of ion exchange techniques.[10]

When Mosander first partitioned "yttria" into three fractions, "terbia" was the fraction that contained the pink color (due to what is now known as erbium), and "erbia" was the fraction that was essentially colorless in solution, but gave a brown-tinged oxide. Later workers had difficulty in observing the latter, but the pink fraction was impossible to miss. Arguments went back and forth as to whether "erbia" even existed. In the confusion, the original names got reversed, and the exchange of names stuck. It is now thought that those workers who used the double sodium or potassium sulfates to remove "ceria" from "yttria" inadvertently lost the terbium content of the system into the ceria-containing precipitate. In any case, what is now known as terbium was only about 1% of the original yttria, but that was sufficient to impart a yellowish color to the oxide. Thus, terbium was a minor component in the original terbium fraction, dominated by its immediate neighbors, gadolinium and dysprosium. Thereafter, whenever other rare earths were teased apart from this mixture, whichever fraction gave the brown oxide retained the terbium name, until at last it was pure. The 19th century investigators did not have the benefit of fluorescence technology, wherewith to observe the brilliant fluorescence that would have made this element much easier to track in mixtures.[10]

[edit] Occurrence

Xenotime

Terbium is never found in nature as a free element, but it is contained in many minerals, including cerite, gadolinite, monazite ((Ce,La,Th,Nd,Y)PO4, which contains up to 0.03% of terbium), xenotime (YPO4) and euxenite ((Y,Ca,Er,La,Ce,U,Th)(Nb,Ta,Ti)2O6, which contains 1% or more of terbium). The crust abundance of terbium is estimated as 1.2 mg/kg.[6]

The richest current commercial sources of terbium are the ion-adsorption clays of southern China. The high-yttrium concentrate versions of these are about two-thirds yttrium oxide by weight, and about 1% terbia. However, small amounts occur in bastnäsite and monazite, and when these are processed by solvent-extraction to recover the valuable heavy lanthanides in the form of "samarium-europium-gadolinium concentrate" (SEG concentrate), the terbium content of the ore ends up therein. Due to the large volumes of bastnäsite processed, relative to the richer ion-adsorption clays, a significant proportion of the world's terbium supply comes from bastnäsite.[2]

[edit] Production

Crushed terbium-containing minerals are treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid to produce water-soluble sulfates of rare earths. The acidic filtrates are partially neutralized with caustic soda to pH 3-4. Thorium precipitates out of solution as hydroxide and is removed. After that the solution is treated with ammonium oxalate to convert rare earths into their insoluble oxalates. The oxalates are converted to oxides by annealing. The oxides are dissolved in nitric acid that excludes one of the main components, cerium, whose oxide is insoluble in HNO3. Terbium is separated as a double salt with ammonium nitrate by crystallization.[6]

The most efficient separation routine for terbium salt from the rare-earth salt solution is ion exchange. In this process, rare-earth ions are sorbed onto suitable ion-exchange resin by exchange with hydrogen, ammonium or cupric ions present in the resin. The rare earth ions are then selectively washed out by suitable complexing agent. As with other rare earths, terbium metal is produced by reducing the anhydrous chloride or fluoride with calcium metal. Calcium and tantalum impurities can be removed by vacuum remelting, distillation, amalgam formation or zone melting.[6]

[edit] Applications

Terbium is used as a Dopant in calcium fluoride, calcium tungstate and strontium molybdate, materials that are used in solid-state devices, and as a crystal stabilizer of fuel cells which operate at elevated temperatures, together with ZrO2.[2]

Terbium is also used in alloys and in the production of electronic devices. As a component of Terfenol-D, terbium is of use in actuators, in naval sonar systems, sensors, in the SoundBug device (its first commercial application), and other magnetomechanical devices. Terfenol-D is an alloy that expands or contracts in the presence of a magnetic field. It has the highest magnetostriction of any alloy.[11]

Terbium oxide is used in green phosphors in fluorescent lamps and color TV tubes. Sodium terbium borate is used in solid state devices. The brilliant fluorescence allows terbium to be used as a probe in biochemistry, where it somewhat resembles calcium in its behavior. Terbium "green" phosphors (which fluoresce a brilliant lemon-yellow) are combined with divalent europium blue phosphors and trivalent europium red phosphors to provide the "trichromatic" lighting technology which is by far the largest consumer of the world's terbium supply. Trichromatic lighting provides much higher light output for a given amount of electrical energy than does incandescent lighting.[2]

[edit] Precautions

As with the other lanthanides, terbium compounds are of low to moderate toxicity, although their toxicity has not been investigated in detail. Terbium has no known biological role.[2]

引用出處： 

 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terbium

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摘要】提到「鑽石」──這人見人愛，燦爛奪目的寶石，每個人莫不怦然心動。但是您知這嗎？在它背後所蘊含的科學，更值得我們來探討。

1955 年冬天的某個下午，在美國紐約州史奈他地（Schenectady）鎮，從奇異公司研究發展中心大門，駛出一輛汽 車，車子主人溫特夫（R.Wentorf Jr.），神色興奮地在附近的雜貨鋪買了一瓶花生醬回來，然後當晚在該中心高壓實驗中，成功地利用花生醬製造出「鑽石粒」。從此展開了鑽石新的生命。

溫 特夫等人製造鑽石的程序，是運用高壓（4～6萬大氣壓）、高溫（1700K）和長時間的反應，類似天然鑽石在地球內部形成 的條件。而不同的條件和觸媒劑可以合成出性質和大小不同的鑽石，所以奇異公司位於俄亥俄州渥興頓市（Wothington）的超級研磨中心，至今仍是世界 上製造人造鑽石和其他研磨材料的領導者。

為什麼學科學的我們要談「合成鑽石」呢？我們不是企求價昂的寶石賣錢，而是希望能開發出鑽石在科 學中的應用。我們知道鑽石是 地球上已知最硬和傳熱最快的物質，所以它可以用來切割或研磨其他任何物體，至於傳熱的性質則一直未曾應用，一直要到1970年代末期人們才開始用到（請參 閱本刊十八卷九期〈從石刀石斧到太空梭〉一文）。

話說CVD

1960年，一個以德雅金（B.Deryaguin）為首的蘇 俄研究群，成功地利用「化學氣態蒸鍍法」（chemical vapor deposition, CVD）合成出「鑽石薄膜」，但是因為薄膜成長速率極低（0.01微米／每小時），沒有引起人注意。到了1976年德雅金等人又說，他們可以每小時一個微 米的成長厚度來合成鑽石薄膜，但是對詳細的程序條件卻守口如瓶。此舉引不起全世界有關研究者的注意力，其實這其中還牽涉到旁人對於德雅金小組的研究態度的 持疑。因為在1970年代初期，德雅金宣稱他們發現了一種聚合態的水，而令人害怕的是海洋的水很可能某一時候會轉變成此種聚合態水，引起當時人們憂心忡 忡，真是世界末日來到。可是不久之後大家證明德雅金的發現純屬無稽之談，就因為這樣，數年之後，當德雅金宣稱成長速率可以達到每小時1微米時，沒有人願意 相信和接受。

但是終究有人把德雅金的話當真，日本的研究團體很認真地重複德雅金的實驗；1982年開始，日本國立無機材科研究所的科學 家，陸續發表了數篇有關CVD鑽石技術的文章，文中很明確地指出：在何種狀態之下可以達到德雅金的速率。接著全世界其他地方的科學家，都重複出日本的實驗 結果；到了此時，所謂「鑽石熱」就在全世界各地燃燒起來了，人們也開始利用到鑽石的傳熱性質。

什麼是CVD呢？

CVD技術 其實十分簡單（見圖一），首先把氫氣和含碳氫氣體（通常是甲烷）通過氣體調節器之後，輸入到已抽至低壓（10-3torr） 的反應室內（兩種氣體的比例可以經由調節器控制），然後用電熱絲或微波源，或者無線電波源（RF）來加熱混合氣體至2000℃；在這個溫度下，氫氣和甲烷 會分解成氫原子和碳原子形成電漿流，然後碳原子會在已熱至600～1000℃的基質上，結核長膜。而剩下的廢氣，用真空抽氣機抽至室外，以避危險（氫氣會 自燃）。

很奇怪的是氫原子在這過程中的角色。既然鑽石是純碳結構，為何還需要氫氣呢？大部分的研究者認為，氫原子扮演了舉足輕重的角色。 我們從化學課本中可知道，在鑽石中每一個碳原子和其他四個鄰近碳原子，各以共價鍵相連（sp3立體結構）；如果在CVD成核階段時，沒有足夠的碳原子來結 成sp3立體結構，那很可能會以sp2平面結構的石墨出現（見圖二），而氫原子的功用是能把未被結合成sp3立體結構的多餘碳原子聯起來，不讓它跑掉，直 到另外的碳原子來取代它的地位，然後讓氫原子跑走。

照以上的描述，也許你會推論：大量增加碳原子的數目（甲烷的分量），應該會加快碳原子結 核速率。但是實際上，目前已知最好成 長速率的實驗狀態是：甲烷占總氣體體積（甲烷加氫氣）的0.5～1.5％。鑽石的形成似乎存在一個自然法則，而我們絲毫不知。雖然我們對於鑽石形成的詳細 機制無法確知，但是大家並不氣餒，反而更積極地嘗試錯誤，不斷改進；仔細想起來是有點好笑，就像一位廚房新手在做菜一樣，不知道要加多少調味料才會好吃； 於是一時之間，科學家儼然變成現代的「煉金師」了。

高明的「試金石」

在基質上合成的物質如何知道就是鑽石呢？這是很重要的 一步，通常我們用下列數種方法來驗證：硬度試驗、掃描式電子顯微儀 （SEM）、Ｘ射線繞射法、拉曼頻譜（Raman spectroscopy）和反射式高能電子繞射法（RHEED）。在此筆者並不解釋幾種方法原理，而僅提出有關試驗鑽石的結果。

硬度試驗 是利用微維克（micro-Vicker）方法，來測定合成物的硬度是否達到天然鑽石的硬度值 ──7,000～10,000公斤／平方毫米。因為這個方法簡單易測，所以通常是第一個採取的檢測方法，如果檢測出硬度值在標準範圍內，則從事進一步較精 確的檢測方法；如果不在期望值之內，那就把它丟在一旁吧。

要測定鑽石，在1960年代時還是一項費時而困難的工作，即使在今日我們還是必 須非常小心的；1986年日本大阪大學的研究 群（K.Kitahama為首）發表文章說：他們在40～800℃之間用雷射光當做熱源，成功地合成了鑽石，他們用了電子繞射法來驗證結果。如果這是真的 話，那確是一項鑽石技術上的一個突破（尤其是在接近室溫）。但是直到1988年末，其他的研究者才用了拉曼頻譜術，證明大阪大學的結果是錯誤的。因為鑽石 和石墨的電子繞射譜是挺相似的，所以單是電子（或Ｘ光）繞射法不足以完完全全證明鑽石。

我們在此為鑽石下一個操作型定義：真正的鑽石鍍膜必須用掃描式或穿隧式電子顯微儀檢明結晶結構，並用Ｘ射線或電子繞射法檢查單相晶體結構，再用拉曼頻譜術檢查出強而窄的1332cm-1譜線。

圖 三是鑽石在掃描式電子顯微鏡下的樣子，圖四是立方鑽石的Ｘ射線繞射圖樣，我們可以從圖樣中計算出結晶平面的間距，然後拿此 數據與美國物質測試學會（ASTM）的基本鑽石資料比對，即可得知大概。而RHEED方法得出之數據與此相同，亦可拿來比對；圖五是鑽石RHEED的繞射 條紋和數據對照。拉曼頻譜術對於任何類似鑽石而非鑽石的結構特別有用，所以用它來測量鑽石薄膜的完美性是很理想的。圖六是天然鑽石，高品質合成鑽石薄膜和 含石墨的鑽石薄膜的拉曼頻譜比較。

鑽石極品，無與倫比

雖然大部分的研究者都還在研究鑽石CVD鍍膜技術，但是已經有商業化的CVD產品問世了，在此略舉數件，讀者便知道它的好處了。

第 一件商業CVD產品是日本JVC出產的高頻揚聲器，他們把類鑽石鍍在揚聲器中的振動膜上，因鑽石具高傳聲速度、高頑抗性和 低重量之性質，使它更容易振動出更高頻的聲音，於是高頻失真性大為減低，只是它的價格昂貴，只供專業人士使用。美國加州Crystallume公司出產一 種Ｘ射線（或紅外線）光窗，因為鑽石對於Ｘ射線（及可見光）的高透明性，所以使得分析物質中例如碳、氮和氧之工作更為便利（見圖七）。另外，日本精工公司 計畫推出表殼玻璃上鍍著鑽石的表，你可以想像得出那種表耐磨又防老化。

同時我們可以猜想得出其他尚未問世的產品，例如把鑽石鍍在眼鏡片 上，既防磨損又摔不破；我們也可以製造出非常大而薄的玻璃 窗，只要把鑽石鍍在表面，那我們便不怕它易碎了。因為鑽石的折射率（n＝2.42）很高，我們可以用它來當做過濾片或者防止反射的薄膜，以致我們可以把它 應用在光通訊、光計算和積體光學等方面。

當然鑽石薄膜在半導體工業方面的應用是較受人注意的，高密度的積體電路是希望能把電子行走路線縮 短以增快訊號傳輸速率。但是 這有幾點困難：電磁波干涉（暫且不論）和散熱率不好；我們在使用學校大電腦時，經常會遇到莫名其妙的當機，大部分是因為機器散熱不佳以致當機；如果我們把 鑽石鍍膜技術用到積體電路上，增加每個晶片的散熱性，將會大大增加現有電腦的可靠性，並會改變未來積體電路的設計原則。

鑽石技術是新而有 潛力的研究領域，往往靠著個人的靈機一動即可帶來新的突破；1990年七月奇異公司宣布，它利用本身已有的 製造鑽石粒之高壓技術和現今的CVD合成鑽石技術，成功地合成出比天然鑽石傳熱性更快，且不受雷射光損傷的鑽石，因而轟動一時。1988年，日本幾位研究 者更是厲害，他們在大氣壓力之下使用氧乙炔（銲接用），在950℃時成功合成出單晶或複晶狀鑽石，令人叫絕（見圖八）。

圖九是一棵「鑽石 樹」，說明鑽石合成技術是以化學、物理工程學和材料科學為根基，而它的應用分支十分的多。依照筆者接觸所 及，認為涉及之實驗設備並不昂貴，所占空間也不大，適合小的研究組來研究，如果假以時日，持續不斷地做，必會覺得這是一個投資報酬率高且一本萬利的事業。

參考資料：

1.Boggs R., 1989, "Diamond thin film", Design News,70～75, April 10.

2.Amato I., 1990, "Diamond fever", Science News, 138:72～74, August 4.

3.Bachmann P. and Messier R., 1989, " Enering technology diamond thinfilms", C & EN, 24～39, May 15.

4.Matsumoto S. et. al., 1982, "Vapor deposition of diamond particles from methane", JJAP, 21: 183～185, April.

楊天行就讀於美國麻州羅威爾大學物理系研究所

引用出處： 

 http://campus2.chgsh.chc.edu.tw/science/content/1991/00010253/0007.htm

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Gadolinium ( /ˌɡædɵˈlɪniəm/ GAD-o-LIN-ee-əm) is a chemical element with the symbol Gd and atomic number 64. It is a silvery-white, malleable and ductile rare-earth metal. Gadolinium has exceptionally high absorption of neutrons and therefore is used for shielding in neutron radiography and in nuclear reactors. Because of its paramagnetic properties, solutions of organic gadolinium complexes and gadolinium compounds are the most popular intravenous MRI contrast agents in medical magnetic resonance imaging.

Contents

[hide]

• 1 Characteristics
  • 1.1 Physical properties
  • 1.2 Chemical properties
  • 1.3 Lower oxidation state derivatives
  • 1.4 Compounds
  • 1.5 Isotopes
• 2 History
• 3 Occurrence
• 4 Production
• 5 Applications
• 6 Biological role
• 7 Safety
• 8 References
• 9 External links

[edit] Characteristics

A sample of gadolinium

[edit] Physical properties

Gadolinium is a silvery-white malleable and ductile rare-earth metal. It crystallizes in hexagonal, close-packed α- form at room temperature, but, when heated to temperatures above 1235 °C, it transforms into its β- form, which has a body-centered cubic structure.[2]

Gadolinium-157 has the highest thermal neutron capture cross-section among any stable nuclides: 259,000 barns. Only xenon-135 has a higher cross section, 2 million barns, but that isotope is unstable.[3]

Gadolinium is a ferromagnetic at temperatures below 19 °C and is strongly paramagnetic above this temperature. Whereas it is normally a metal, it becomes a ferromagnetic superconductor at temperatures below 1.083 K.[4] Gadolinium demonstrates a magnetocaloric effect whereby its temperature increases when it enters a magnetic field and decreases when it leaves the magnetic field. The effect is considerably stronger for the gadolinium alloy Gd5(Si2Ge2).[5]

Individual gadolinium atoms have been isolated by encapsulating them into fullerene molecules and visualized with transmission electron microscope.[6] Individual Gd atoms and small Gd clusters have also been incorporated into carbon nanotubes.[7]

[edit] Chemical properties

Unlike other rare earth elements, metallic gadolinium is relatively stable in dry air. However, it tarnishes quickly in moist air, forming a loosely adhering oxide which spalls off, exposing more surface to oxidation.

4 Gd + 3 O2 → 2 Gd2O3

Gadolinium is a strong reducing agent, which reduces oxides of several metals, such as Fe, Cr, Sn, Pb, Mn and Zr, into their elements.[2] Gadolinium is quite electropositive and reacts slowly with cold water and quite quickly with hot water to form gadolinium hydroxide:

2 Gd + 6 H2O → 2 Gd(OH)3 + 3 H2

Gadolinium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the colorless Gd(III) ions, which exist as a [Gd(OH2)9]3+ complexes:[8]

2 Gd (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Gd3+ (aq) + 3 SO2−

4 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)

Gadolinium metal reacts with all of the halogens at temperature about 200 °C:

2 Gd (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 GdF3 (s) [white]2 Gd (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 GdCl3 (s) [white]2 Gd (s) + 3 Br2 (g) → 2 GdBr3 (s) [white]2 Gd (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 GdI3 (s) [yellow]

Gadolinium combines with nitrogen, carbon, sulfur, phosphorus, boron, selenium, silicon and arsenic at elevated temperatures, forming binary compounds.[2]

[edit] Lower oxidation state derivatives

In the great majority of its compounds, Gd has oxidation state +3, but other oxidation states are known especially in the solid state. Gadolinium(II) halides are obtained by heating Gd(III) halides in presence of metallic Gd in tantalum containers. Gadolinium also form sesquichloride Gd2Cl3, which can be further reduced to GdCl by annealing at 800 °C. This gadolinium(I) chloride forms platelets with layered graphite-like structure.[9]

[edit] Compounds

See also: Category:Gadolinium compounds

Compounds of gadolinium include

• Fluorides: GdF3
• Chlorides: GdCl3
• Bromides: GdBr3
• Nitrates: Gd(NO3)3
• Iodides: GdI3
• Oxides: Gd2O3
• Sulfides: Gd2S3
• Nitrides: GdN
• Organics: gadodiamide

[edit] Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of gadolinium

Naturally occurring gadolinium is composed of 6 stable isotopes, 154Gd, 155Gd, 156Gd, 157Gd, 158Gd and 160Gd, and 1 radioisotope, 152Gd, with 158Gd being the most abundant (24.84% natural abundance). The predicted double beta decay of 160Gd has never been observed (the only lower limit on its half-life of more than 1.3×1021 years has been set experimentally [10]).

Twenty-nine radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being alpha-decaying 152Gd (naturally occurring) with a half-life of 1.08×1014 years, and 150Gd with a half-life of 1.79×106 years. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives of less than 74.7 years. The majority of these have half-lives of less than 24.6 seconds. Gadolinium isotopes have 4 metastable isomers, with the most stable being 143mGd (T½=110 seconds), 145mGd (T½=85 seconds) and 141mGd (T½=24.5 seconds).

Isotopes with atomic masses lower than the most abundant stable isotope, 158Gd, primarily decay via electron capture to Eu (europium) isotopes. At higher atomic masses, the primary decay mode is beta decay, and the primary products are Tb (terbium) isotopes.

[edit] History

In 1880, Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac observed spectroscopic lines due to gadolinium in samples of didymium and gadolinite; French chemist Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran separated gadolinia, the oxide of gadolinium, from Mosander's yttria in 1886. The element itself was isolated only recently. Gadolinium, like the mineral gadolinite, is named after Finnish chemist and geologist Johan Gadolin.[2]

[edit] Occurrence

Gadolinite

Gadolinium is a constituent in many minerals such as monazite and bastnäsite, which are oxides. The metal is too reactive to exist naturally. Ironically, the mineral gadolinite contains only traces of Gd. The abundance in the earth crust is about 6.2 mg/kg.[2] The main mining areas are China, USA, Brazil, Sri Lanka, India and Australia with reserves expected to exceed one million tonnes. World production of pure gadolinium is about 400 tonnes per year.

[edit] Production

Gadolinium is produced both from monazite and bastnäsite.

1. Crushed minerals are extracted with hydrochloric or sulfuric acids, which converts the insoluble oxides into soluble chlorides or sulfates.
2. The acidic filtrates are partially neutralized with caustic soda to pH 3–4. Thorium precipitates as its hydroxide and is removed.
3. The remaining solution is treated with ammonium oxalate to convert rare earths in to their insoluble oxalates. The oxalates are converted to oxides by heating.
4. The oxides are dissolved in nitric acid that excludes one of the main components, cerium, whose oxide is insoluble in HNO3.
5. The solution is treated with magnesium nitrate to produce a crystallized mixture of double salts of gadolinium, samarium and europium.
6. The salts are separated by ion exchange chromatography.
7. The rare earth ions are then selectively washed out by suitable complexing agent.[2]

Gadolinium metal is obtained from its oxide or salts by heating with calcium at 1450 °C under argon atmosphere. Sponge gadolinium can be produced by reducing molten GdCl3 with an appropriate metal at temperatures below 1312 °C (melting point of Gd) in a reduced pressure.[2]

[edit] Applications

Gadolinium has no large-scale applications but has a variety of specialized uses.

With the highest neutron cross-section among any stable nuclides, 61,000 barns for 155Gd and 259,000 barns for 157Gd. 157Gd has been used to target tumors in neutron therapy. This element is very effective for use with neutron radiography and in shielding of nuclear reactors. It is used as a secondary, emergency shut-down measure in some nuclear reactors, particularly of the CANDU type.[2] Gadolinium is also used in nuclear marine propulsion systems as a burnable poison.

Gadolinium also possesses unusual metallurgic properties, with as little as 1% of gadolinium improving the workability and resistance of iron, chromium, and related alloys to high temperatures and oxidation.

Gadolinium is paramagnetic at room temperature, with a ferromagnetic Curie point of 17 °C.[11] Paramagnetic ions, such as gadolinium, move differently within a magnetic field. This trait makes gadolinium useful for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Solutions of organic gadolinium complexes and gadolinium compounds are used as intravenous MRI contrast agent to enhance images in medical magnetic resonance imaging and magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) procedures. Magnevist is the most widespread example.[12][13] Nanotubes packed with gadolinium, dubbed "gadonanotubes," are 40 times more effective than this traditional gadolinium contrast agent.[14] Once injected, gadolinium-based contrast agents accumulate in abnormal tissues of the brain and body. This accumulation provides a greater contrast between normal and abnormal tissues, allowing doctors to better locate uncommon cell growths and tumors.

Gadolinium-153 helps calibrate positron emission tomography (PET) systems that are used in nuclear medicine for functional imaging. This PET image of the human brain shows the difference between a normal brain and the clinically depressed patient. The blue color indicates less glucose metabolism in a normal brain. The green, yellow, and red colors indicate areas of higher glucose metabolism characteristic of a depressed patient.[15]

Gadolinium is also used in other imaging besides MRIs. In X-ray systems, gadolinium is contained in the phosphor layer, suspended in a polymer matrix at the detector. Terbium-doped gadolinium oxysulfide (Gd2O2S: Tb) at the phosphor layer converts the X-rays released from the source into light. This material emits green light at 540 nm due to the presence of Tb3+, which is very useful for enhancing the imaging quality. The energy conversion of Gd is up to 20%, which means that one-fifth of the X-rays striking the phosphor layer can be converted into light photons. Gadolinium oxyorthosilicate (Gd2SiO5, GSO; usually doped by 0.1–1% of Ce) is a single crystal that is used as a scintillator in medical imaging such as positron emission tomography or for detecting neutrons.[16]

Gadolinium-153 is produced in a nuclear reactor from elemental europium or enriched gadolinium targets. It has a half-life of 240±10 days and emits gamma radiation with strong peaks at 41 keV and 102 keV. It is used in many quality assurance applications, such as line sources and calibration phantoms, to ensure that nuclear medicine imaging systems operate correctly and produce useful images of radioisotope distribution inside the patient.[15] It is also used as a gamma ray source in X-ray absorption measurements or in bone density gauges for osteoporosis screening, as well as in the Lixiscope portable X-ray imaging system.[17]

Gadolinium is used for making gadolinium yttrium garnet (Gd:Y3Al5O12); it has microwave applications and is used in fabrication of various optical components and as substrate material for magneto–optical films.

Gadolinium compounds are also used for making green phosphors for colour TV tubes and compact discs.

Gadolinium Gallium Garnet (GGG, Gd3Ga5O12) was used for imitation diamonds and for computer bubble memory.[18]

[edit] Biological role

Gadolinium has no known native biological role, but its compounds are used as research tools in biomedicine. Gd3+ compounds are components of MRI contrast agents. It is used in various ion channel electrophysiology experiments to block sodium leak channels, as well as to stretch activated ion channels.[19]

[edit] Safety

As a free ion, gadolinium is highly toxic, but MRI contrast agents are chelated compounds and are considered safe. The toxicity depends on the strength of the chelating agent.[20] US Food and Drug Administration approved Gd chelated contrast agents include: Omniscan, Multihance, Magnevist, ProHance, Vasovist, Eovist and OptiMARK.[21]

Gadolinium MRI contrast agents have proved safer than the iodinated contrast agents used in X-ray radiography or computed tomography. Anaphylactoid reactions are rare, occurring in approx. 0.03–0.1%.[22]

Although gadolinium agents have proved useful for patients with renal impairment, in patients with severe renal failure requiring dialysis there is a risk of a rare but serious illnesses, such as nephrogenic systemic fibrosis[23] and nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy,[24] that may be linked to the use of certain gadolinium-containing agents. Current guidelines in the United States are that dialysis patients should only receive gadolinium agents where essential, and that dialysis should be performed as soon as possible after the scan is complete, in order to remove the agent from the body promptly.[25] However, after several years of controversy during which up to 100 Danish patients have been gadolinium poisoned (and some died) after Omniscan use, it has been admitted by the Norwegian medical company Nycomed that they were aware of the dangers of using gadolinium based agents for their product.

引用出處： 

 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gadolinium

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钆：原子序数64，原子量157.25，元素名来源于研究镧系元素有卓越贡献的芬兰科学家加多林。1880年瑞士的马里尼亚克分离出钆，1886年法国化学家布瓦博德朗制出纯净的钆，并命名。钆在地壳中的含量为0.000636%，主要存在于独居石和氟碳铈矿中。

目录

基本信息

1. 字体信息
2. 基本字义

元素简介相关性质发现来源及用途资源用途氧化钆水化钆二酰胺

基本信息

1. 字体信息
2. 基本字义

元素简介相关性质发现来源及用途资源用途氧化钆

• 水化钆二酰胺

展开

编辑本段基本信息

字体信息

钆 拼音:gá　繁体字:钆

钆

部首:钅,部外笔画:1,总笔画:6 ; 繁体部首:金,部外笔画:1,总笔画:9 　　五笔86&98:QNN　仓颉:XCU　 　　笔顺编号:311155　四角号码:82710　UniCode:CJK 统一汉字 U+9486

基本字义

● 钆 　　（钆） 　　gáㄍㄚˊ 　　◎ 一种金属元素，稀土金属。它的氟化物和硫化物都带淡红色。用于微波技术、彩色电视机的荧光粉、原子能工业及配制特种合金。 　　汉英互译 　　◎ 钆 　　gadolinium

氧化钆

English 　　◎ gadolinium

编辑本段元素简介

钆为银白色金属，有延展性，熔点1313°C，沸点3266°C，密度7.9004克/厘米³。钆在室温下有磁性。

金属钆

钆 在干燥空气中比较稳定，在湿空气中失去光泽；能与水缓慢反应；溶于酸形成相应的盐。钆有最高的热中子俘获面，可用作反应堆控制材料和防护材料；用钆盐经磁 化制冷可获得接近绝对零度的超低温。1880年，瑞士的马里格纳克（G.de Marignac）将“钐”分离成两个元素，其中一个由索里特证实是钐元素，另一个元素得到波依斯包德莱的研究确认，1886年，马里格纳克为了纪念钇元 素的发现者，研究稀土的先驱荷兰化学家加多林（Gado Linium），将这个新元素命名为钆。钆在现代技革新中将起重要作用。[1]

编辑本段相关性质

元 素名称：钆 　　元素在太阳中的含量:(ppm)：0.002 　　元素在海水中的含量:(ppm)：太平洋表面 0.0000006 　　地壳中含量：（ppm）：7.7 　　元素原子量：157.3 　　氧化态： 　　Main Gd+2, Gd+3 　　Other

金属钆

晶 体结构：晶胞为六方晶胞。 　　晶胞参数： 　　a = 363.6 pm 　　b = 363.6 pm 　　c = 578.26 pm 　　α = 90° 　　β = 90° 　　γ = 120° 维氏硬度：570MPa 　　声音在其中的传播速率：（m/S） 2680

钆铁合金

电 离能 (kJ /mol) 　　M - M+ 592.5 　　M+ - M2+ 1167 　　M2+ - M3+ 1990 　　M3+ - M4+ 4250 　　相对原子质量：157.25 　　常见化合价： +3 　　电负性： 1.2 　　外围电子排布：4f7 5d1 6s2 　　核外电子排布： 2,8,18,25,9,2 　　同位素及放射线： Gd-148[75y] Gd-150[1800000y] Gd-152(放 α[1.1E11y]) Gd-154 Gd-155 Gd-156 Gd-157 *Gd-158 Gd-159[18.6h] Gd-160 Gd-162[8.4m] 　　元素周期表的位置：64 　　电子层分布情况: 2-8-16-25-9-2 　　电子亲合和能： 0 KJ•mol-1 　　第一电离能： 594 KJ•mol-1 　　第二电离能： 1170 KJ•mol-1 　　第三电离能： 0 KJ•mol-1 　　单质密度： 7.895 g/cm3 　　单质熔点： 1311.0 ℃ 　　单质沸点： 3233.0 ℃ 　　原子半径： 2.54 埃 　　离子半径： 1.05(+3) 埃 　　共价半径： 1.61 埃 　　体积弹性模量：Gpa：37.9 　　原子化焓：kJ /mol @25℃：352 　　热容：J /（mol• K）：37.03 　　导电性：10^6/(cm •Ω )：0.00736 　　导热系数：W/（m•K）：10.6 　　熔化热:(千焦/摩尔)：10.050 　　汽化热:(千焦/摩尔) ：359.40 　　元素在宇宙中的含量:(ppm)：0.002 　　原子体积:(立方厘米/摩尔) ：19.9

编辑本段发现

发 现人：马里纳克（C.G.Marignac） 　　发现年代：1880年 　　发现过程：1880年，马里纳克（C.G.Marignac）发现。 　　自莫桑德尔先后发现镧、铒和铽以后，各国化学家特别注意从已发现的稀土元素去分离新的元素。在发现钐后的第2年，1880年瑞士科学家马里纳克发现了 两个新元素并分别命名为gamma alpha和gamma beta。后来证实gamma beta和钐是同一元素。1886年布瓦博德朗制得纯净的gamma alpha，并确定它是一种新元素。命名为gadolinium，元素符号Gd。这是为了纪念芬兰矿物学家加多林（J．Gadonlin）。 钆、钐、镨、钕都 是从当时被认为是一种稀土元素的didymium中分离出来的。由于它们的发现，didymium不再被保留。而正是它们的发现打开了发现稀土元素的第三 道大门，是发现稀土元素的第三阶段。但这仅是完成了第三阶段的一半工作。确切的将应该是打开了铈的大门或完成了铈的分离，另一半就将是打开钇的大门或是完 成钇的分离。[2]

编辑本段来源及用途

元素来源：钆，源自硅铍钆矿石。可由氟化钆 GdF3•2H2O用钙还原而制得。 　　元素用途：常用作原子反应堆中吸收中子的材料。也用于微波技术、彩色电视机的荧光粉。 　　在潮湿的空气中变晦暗。溶于酸，不溶于水。氧化物为白色粉状。盐类无色。有良好的超导电性能、高磁矩及室温居里点等特殊性能。钆有以下同位 素：152Gd、154Gd~158Gd、160Gd。

编辑本段资源

目前世界上已知的稀 土矿物及含有稀土元素的矿物有250多种，稀土元素含量较高的矿物有60多种，有工业价值的不到10种。中国稀土资源极其丰富，其特点可概括为：储量大、 品种全、有价值的元素含量高、分布广。中国稀土的工业储量（按氧化物计）是国外稀土工业储量的2.2倍。国外稀土资源集中在美国、印度、巴西、澳大利亚和 苏联等国，工业储量（按氧化物计）为701.11万吨。

编辑本段用途

稀土金属及其合金在 炼钢中起脱氧脱硫作用，能使两者的含量降低到0.001%以下，并改变夹杂物的形态，细化晶粒，从而改善钢的加工性能，提高强度、韧性、耐腐蚀性和抗氧化 性等。稀土金属及其合金用于制造球墨铸铁、高强灰铸铁和蠕墨铸铁，能改变铸铁中石墨的形态，改善铸造工艺，提高铸铁的机械性能。在青铜和黄铜冶炼中添加少 量的稀土金属能提高合金的强度、延伸率、耐热性和导电性。 　　在铸造铝硅合金中添加1%-1.5%的稀土金属，可以提高高温强度。在铝合金导线中添加稀土金属，能提高抗张强度和耐腐蚀性。Fe-Cr-Al电热合 金中添加0.3%的稀土金属，能提高抗氧化能力，增加电阻率和高温强度。在钛及其合金中添加稀土金属能细化晶粒，降低蠕变率，改善高温抗腐蚀性能。用铈族 混合稀土氯化物和富镧稀土氯化物制备的微球分子筛，用于石油催化裂化过程。稀土金属和过渡金属复合氧化物催化剂用于氧化净化，能使一氧化碳和碳氢化物转化 为二氧化碳和水。镨钕环烷—烷基铝—氯化烷基铝三元体系催化剂用于合成橡胶。 　　稀土抛光粉用于各种玻璃器件的抛光。单一的高纯稀土氧化物用于合成各种荧光体，如彩色电视红色荧光粉、投影电视白色荧光粉等荧光材料。稀土金属碘化物 用于制造金属卤素灯，代替碳精棒电弧灯作照明光源。用稀土金属制备的稀土—钴硬磁合金，具有高剩磁、高矫顽力的优点。钇铁石榴石铁氧体是用高纯Y2O3和 氧化铁制成单晶或多晶的铁磁材料。它们用于微波器件。高纯Gd2O3用于制备钇镓石榴石，它的单晶用作磁泡的基片。金属镧和镍制成的LaNi5贮氢材料， 吸氢和放氢速度快，每摩尔LaNi5可贮存6.5—6.7摩尔氢。在原子能工业中，利用铕和钆的同位素的中子吸收截面大的特性，作轻水堆和快中子增殖堆的 控制棒和中子吸收剂。稀土元素作为微量化肥，对农作物有增产效果。打火石是稀土发火合金的传统用途，目前仍是铈组稀土金属的重要用途。

编辑本段氧化钆

元 素类型：金属 　　发现人：马里纳克（C.G.Marignac） 　　发现年代：1880年 　　发现过程：1880年，马里纳克（C.G.Marignac）发现。 　　元素描述：在潮湿的空气中变晦暗。溶于酸，不溶于水。氧化物为白色粉状。盐类无色。有良好的超导电性能、高磁矩及室温居里点等特殊性能。钆有以下同位 素：152Gd、154Gd~158Gd、160Gd。 　　元素来源：钆，源自硅铍钆矿石。可由氟化钆GdF3•2H2O用钙还原而制得。 　　元素用途：常用作原子反应堆中吸收中子的材料。也用于微波技术、彩色电视机的荧光粉。

编辑本段水化钆二酰胺

【药 理作用】 同钆喷葡胺。 　　【药代动力】 体内过程与钆喷葡胺相似。经静脉给药后，迅速分布于细胞外液，然后于肾脏浓缩，以原形排出；有少量分泌于胃肠道，随粪便排出，本品器官残留量高于钆喷葡 胺，可能与其较高亲脂性有关。 　　【适应症】 MRI造影剂，用途同钆喷葡胺。 　　【用法用量】 静脉注射，0.lmmol/kg。注射后立即行增强扫描。 　　【不良反应】 参见"钆喷葡胺"。 　　【规格】 注射剂：20ml（0.5mol／L）。

引用出處： 

 http://baike.baidu.com/view/26365.htm

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Europium ( /jʊˈroʊpiəm/ ew-ROH-pee-əm) is a chemical element with the symbol Eu and atomic number 63. It was named after the continent of Europe.

Contents

[hide]

• 1 Characteristics
  • 1.1 Physical properties
  • 1.2 Chemical properties
  • 1.3 Isotopes
    • 1.3.1 Europium as a nuclear fission product
  • 1.4 Occurrence
• 2 Production
• 3 Compounds
  • 3.1 Eu(II) vs Eu(III)
  • 3.2 Halides
  • 3.3 Chalcogenides and pnictides
• 4 History
• 5 Applications
• 6 Precautions
• 7 See also
• 8 References
• 9 External links

[edit] Characteristics

[edit] Physical properties

dendritic sublimated Eu handled in a glovebox (~300 g; purity 99.998%)

oxidized europium, coated with yellow europium(II) carbonate

Europium is a ductile metal that is hard as lead. It crystallizes in a body-centered cubic habit.[2]

It becomes a superconductor when it is simultaneously at both high pressure (80 GPa) and at low temperature (1.8 K). The occurrence of superconductivity is due to the applied pressure driving europium from a divalent (J = 7/2) state into a trivalent (J = 0) state. In the divalent state, the strong local magnetic moment is thought to play a role in suppressing the superconductivity and so through eliminating this local moment the opportunity for superconductivity arises.[3]

[edit] Chemical properties

Europium is the most reactive of the rare earth elements. It rapidly oxidizes in air: bulk oxidation of a centimeter-sized sample occurs within several days.[4]) It resembles calcium in its reaction with water:

2 Eu + 6 H2O → 2 Eu(OH)3 + 3 H2

Samples of the metal element in solid form, even when coated with a protective layer of mineral oil, are rarely shiny. Europium ignites in air at 150 to 180 °C to form europium(III) oxide:

4 Eu + 3 O2 → 2 Eu2O3

Similarly, europium metal dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form pale pink coloured solutions of the hydrated Eu(III), which exist as a nonahydrate:[5]

2 Eu + 3 H2SO4 + 18 H2O → 2 [Eu(OH2)9]3+ + 3 SO2−

4 + 3 H2

[edit] Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of europium

Naturally occurring europium is composed of 2 isotopes, 151Eu and 153Eu, with 153Eu being the most abundant (52.2% natural abundance). While 153Eu is stable, 151Eu was recently found to be unstable to alpha decay with half-life of 5+11

−3×1018

 year[6] (in reasonable agreement with theoretical predictions), giving about 1 alpha decay per two minutes in every kilogram of natural europium. Besides natural radioisotope 151Eu, 35 artificial radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being 150Eu with a half-life of 36.9 years, 152Eu with a half-life of 13.516 years, and 154Eu with a half-life of 8.593 years. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 4.7612 years, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 12.2 seconds. This element also has 8 meta states, with the most stable being 150mEu (T½=12.8 hours), 152m1Eu (T½=9.3116 hours) and 152m2Eu (T½=96 minutes).

The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 153Eu, is electron capture, and the primary mode after is beta minus decay. The primary decay products before 153Eu are isotopes of samarium (Sm) and the primary products after are isotopes of gadolinium (Gd).

[edit] Europium as a nuclear fission product

Thermal neutron capture cross sections

Isotope 151Eu 152Eu 153Eu 154Eu 155Eu

Yield ~10 low 1580 >2.5 330

Barns 5900 12800 312 1340 3950

Medium-lived

Prop:

Unit: t½

a Yield

% Q *

KeV βγ

*

155Eu 4.76 .0803 252 βγ

85Kr 10.76 .2180 687 βγ

113mCd 14.1 .0008 316 β

90Sr 28.9 4.505 2826 β

137Cs 30.23 6.337 1176 βγ

121mSn 43.9 .00005 390 βγ

151Sm 90 .5314 77 β

Europium is produced by nuclear fission, but the fission product yields of europium isotopes are low near the top of the mass range for fission products.

Like other lanthanides, many isotopes, especially isotopes with odd mass numbers and neutron-poor isotopes like 152Eu, have high cross sections for neutron capture, often high enough to be neutron poisons.

151Eu is the beta decay product of Sm-151, but since this has a long decay half-life and short mean time to neutron absorption, most 151Sm instead winds up as 152Sm.

152Eu (half-life 13.516 years) and 154Eu (halflife 8.593 years) cannot be beta decay products because 152Sm and 154Sm are nonradioactive, but 154Eu is the only long-lived "shielded" nuclide, other than 134Cs, to have a fission yield of more than 2.5 parts per million fissions.[7] A larger amount of 154Eu will be produced by neutron activation of a significant portion of the nonradioactive153Eu; however, much of this will be further converted to 155Eu.

155Eu (halflife 4.7612 years) has a fission yield of 330 ppm for U-235 and thermal neutrons. Most will be transmuted to nonradioactive and nonabsorptive Gadolinium-156 by the end of fuel burnup.

Overall, europium is overshadowed by Cs-137 and Sr-90 as a radiation hazard, and by samarium and others as a neutron poison.

[edit] Occurrence

Monazite

Europium is not found in nature as a free element. Many minerals contain europium, with the most important sources being bastnäsite and monazite. Depletion or enrichment of europium in minerals relative to other rare earth elements is known as the europium anomaly.

Europium has also been identified in the spectra of the sun and certain stars.

Europium has no known biological role.

Divalent europium in small amounts is the activator of the bright blue fluorescence of some samples of the mineral fluorite (CaF2). The most outstanding examples of this originated around Weardale, and adjacent parts of northern England, and indeed it was this fluorite that gave its name to the phenomenon of fluorescence, although it was not until much later that europium was discovered or determined to be the cause.

[edit] Production

Main article: Monazite

Europium is found in minerals xenotime, monazite, and bastnäsite. The first two are orthophosphate minerals LnPO4 (Ln denotes a mixture of all the lanthanides except promethium), and the third is a fluorocarbonate LnCO3F. Monazite also contains thorium and yttrium, which complicates handling because thorium and its decay products are radioactive. For the isolation of individual lanthanoids, the metals are extracted from the ores with acids and separated by solvent extractions and ion exchange chromatography.[8] Europium metal is available through the electrolysis of a mixture of molten EuCl3 and NaCl (or CaCl2) in a graphite cell, which serves as cathode, using graphite as anode. The other product is chlorine gas.

[edit] Compounds

See also: Category:Europium compounds

[edit] Eu(II) vs Eu(III)

Europium commonly forms divalent compounds, in contrast to most lanthanides, which almost exclusively form compounds with an oxidation state of +3. The 2+ state has a configuration 4f7, the half-filled shell being known to confer stability. In terms of size and coordination number, europium(II) and barium(II) are similar. For example, the sulfates of both barium and europium(II) also highly insoluble in water.[9] Divalent europium is, however, a mild reducing agent, oxidizing in air to Eu(III) compounds. Under anaerobic, and particularly under geothermal conditions, the divalent form is sufficiently stable such that it tends to be incorporated into minerals of calcium and the other alkaline earths. This ion-exchange process is the basis of the "negative europium anomaly", the low europium content in many lanthanide minerals such as monazite, relative to the chondritic abundance. Bastnäsite tends to show less of a negative europium anomaly than does monazite, and hence is the major source of europium today. The accessible divalency of europium has always made it one of the easiest lanthanides to extract and purify, even when present in low concentration, as it usually is.

[edit] Halides

Europium metal reacts with all the halogens:

2 Eu + 3 X2 → 2 EuX3 (X = F, Cl, Br, I)

This route gives white europium(III) fluoride (EuF3), yellow europium(III) chloride (EuCl3), and gray europium(III) bromide (EuBr3), and colourless europium(III) iodide (EuI3). Europium also forms the corresponding dihalides including yellow-green europium(II) fluoride (EuF2), colourless europium(II) chloride (EuCl2), colourless europium(II) bromide (EuBr2), and green europium(II) iodide (EuI2).[2]

[edit] Chalcogenides and pnictides

Europium forms stable compounds with all of the chalcogenides, but the heavier chalcogenides stabilize the lower oxidation state. Three oxides are known: europium(II) oxide (EuO), europium(III) oxide (Eu2O3), and the mixed oxide (Eu3O4). Otherwise the following are the main chalcogenide with the formulae EuX (X = S, Se, Te), all three of which are black solids. EuS is pepared by sulfiding the oxide at temperatures sufficiently high to decompose the Eu2S3:[10]

Eu2O3 + 3 H2S → 2 EuS + 3 H2O + S

The main nitrides is europium(III) nitride (EuN).

[edit] History

Europium was first found by Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1890, who obtained basic fraction from samarium-gadolinium concentrates which had spectral lines not accounted for by samarium or gadolinium; however, the discovery of europium is generally credited to French chemist Eugène-Anatole Demarçay, who suspected samples of the recently discovered element samarium were contaminated with an unknown element in 1896 and who was able to isolate europium in 1901.

When the europium-doped yttrium orthovanadate red phosphor was discovered in the early 1960s, and understood to be about to cause a revolution in the color television industry, there was a scramble for the limited supply of europium on hand among the monazite processors. (Typical europium content in monazite is about 0.05%.) However, the Molycorp bastnäsite deposit at the Mountain Pass rare earth mine, California, whose lanthanides had an unusually high europium content of 0.1%, was about to come on-line and provide sufficient europium to sustain the industry. Prior to europium, the color-TV red phosphor was very weak, and the other phosphor colors had to be muted, to maintain color balance. With the brilliant red europium phosphor, it was no longer necessary to mute the other colors, and a much brighter color TV picture was the result. Europium has continued in use in the TV industry ever since, and, of course, also in computer monitors. Californian bastnäsite now faces stiff competition from Bayan Obo, China, with an even "richer" europium content of 0.2%.

Frank Spedding, celebrated for his development of the ion-exchange technology that revolutionized the rare earth industry in the mid-1950s once related the story of how, in the 1930s, he was lecturing on the rare earths when an elderly gentleman approached him with an offer of a gift of several pounds of europium oxide. This was an unheard-of quantity at the time, and Spedding did not take the man seriously. However, a package duly arrived in the mail, containing several pounds of genuine europium oxide. The elderly gentleman had turned out to be Dr. McCoy who had developed a famous method of europium purification involving redox chemistry.

[edit] Applications

Europium is one of the elements used to make the red color in CRT televisions.

There are many commercial applications for europium metal: it has been used to dope some types of glass to make lasers, as well as for screening for Down syndrome and some other genetic diseases. Due to its ability to absorb neutrons, it is also being studied for use in nuclear reactors. Europium oxide (Eu2O3) is widely used as a red phosphor in television sets and fluorescent lamps, and as an activator for yttrium-based phosphors. Whereas trivalent europium gives red phosphors, the luminescence of divalent europium depends on the host lattice, but tends to be on the blue side. The two europium phosphor classes (red and blue), combined with the yellow/green terbium phosphors give "white" light, the color temperature of which can be varied by altering the proportion or specific composition of the individual phosphors. This is the phosphor system typically encountered in the helical fluorescent lightbulbs. Combining the same three classes is one way to make trichromatic systems in TV and computer screens. It is also being used as an agent for the manufacture of fluorescent glass. Europium fluorescence is used to interrogate biomolecular interactions in drug-discovery screens. It is also used in the anti-counterfeiting phosphors in Euro banknotes.[11]

Europium is commonly included in trace element studies in geochemistry and petrology to understand the processes that form igneous rocks (rocks that cooled from magma or lava). The nature of the europium anomaly found is used to help reconstruct the relationships within a suite of igneous rocks.

[edit] Precautions

The toxicity of europium compounds has not been fully investigated, but there are no clear indications that europium is highly toxic compared to other heavy metals. The metal dust presents a fire and explosion hazard.

引用出處： 

 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europium

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铕是一种金属 元素，银白色，用作彩色电视机的荧光粉，在 激光材料及原子能工业中有重要的应用。原子序数63，原子量151.965，元素名来源于拉丁文，原意是“欧洲”。1896年由法国化学家德马尔盖发现。 铕在地壳中的含量为0.000106%，是最稀有的稀土元素，主要存在于独居石和氟碳铈矿中，自然界有两种铕的同位素：铕151和铕153。

纠错 编辑摘要

目录

• 1 概述
• 2 性质
• 3 主要用途
• 4 发现
• 5 钒酸钇:铕

•  

• 1 概述
  • 1.1 简介
  • 1.2 发现
• 2 性质
• 3 主要用途
• 4 发现
• 5 钒酸钇:铕
• 6 三氧化二铕
• 7 参考资料

铕 - 概述

发现人：德马尔赛

发现时间和地点：1901  法国

发现过程：1896年，德马凯（E.Demarcay）发现，1904年，乌尔班（G.Urpain）制得了纯的铕的化合物。

元素来源：很少量地存在于独居石中，常用真空蒸馏氧化铕和金属镧的混合物还原来制取。

元素用途：用作彩色电视机的荧光粉，在激光材料及原子能工业中有重要的应用。

元素描述：第一电离能为5.67电子伏特。能燃烧成氧化物；氧化物近似白色。

简介

1901 年，德马凯（Eugene-Antole Demarcay）从“钐”中发现了新元素，取名为铕（Europium）。这大概是根据欧洲（Europe） 一词命名的。铕为铁灰色金属，熔点822°C，沸点1597°C，密度5.2434克/厘米³；铈稀土元素中密度最小、最软和最易挥发的元素。铕为稀土元 素中最活泼的金属：室温下，铕在空气中立即失去金属光泽，很快被氧化成粉末；与冷水剧烈反应生成氢气；铕能与硼、碳、硫、磷、氢、氮等反应。铕广泛用于制 造反应堆控制材料和中子防护材料。

发现

稀土元素的发现从18世纪末到20世纪初，经历了 100多年，发现了数十个，但只肯定了其中的十几个。铕被认为是20世纪初被发现的一个稀土元素。 1892年布瓦博德朗利用光谱分析，鉴定钐中存在两种新元素，分别命名为Zε和Zζ 。后来在1906年，德马凯经过研究，确定新元素命名为这两种元素其 实是同一个元素，并命名为 europium，元素符号Eu。铕和另一个稀土元素镥的发现就完成了自然界中存在的所有稀土元素的发现。它们俩的发现可以认 为是打开了稀土元素发现的第四座大门，完成了稀土元素发现的第四阶段。

铕 - 性质

元素中文名称：铕

元素英文名称：Europium

元素符号：Eu

元素类型：金属

原子序数：63

相对原子质量：151.96

核内质子数：63

核外电子数：63

核电核数：63

原子体积:(立方厘米/摩尔)：28.9

元素在太阳中的含量:(ppm)：0.0005

元素在海水中的含量:(ppm) 太平洋表面  0.0000001

地壳中含量：（ppm）：2.1

常见化合价： +2,+3

电负性： 1.2  

外围电子排布：4f7 6s2

核外电子排布： 2,8,18,25,8,2  

同 位素及放射线：Eu-147[24.4d] Eu-148[54.5d] Eu-149[93.1d] Eu-150[36y] Eu-151 Eu- 152[13.5y] *Eu-153 Eu-154[8.6y] Eu-155[7.4y] Eu-156[15.2d]

铕

电子亲合和能：0 KJ•mol-1 

第一电离能：546.5 KJ•mol-1

第二电离能： 1085 KJ•mol-1 

第三电离能： 0 KJ•mol-1 

单质密度： 5.259 g/cm3 

单质熔点： 822.0 ℃ 

单质沸点： 1597.0 ℃ 

原子半径： 2.56 埃 

离子半径： 1.07(+3) 埃 

共价半径： 1.85 埃 

常见化合物： 无

氧化态：Main  Eu+3

Other  Eu+2 

质子质量：1.05399E-25

质子相对质量：63.441

所属周期：6

所属族数：IIIB

摩尔质量：152

最高价氧化物：

密度：5.259

熔点：822.0

沸点：1597.0

外围电子排布：4f7 6s2

核外电子排布：2,8,18,25,8,2

晶胞参数：

a = 458.1 pm 

b = 458.1 pm 

c = 458.1 pm 

α = 90° 

β = 90° 

γ = 90°

维氏硬度：167MPa     

晶体结构：晶胞为体心立方晶胞，每个晶胞含有2个金属原子。

颜色和状态：银白色金属

铕 - 主要用途

1、 氧化铕大部分用于荧光粉。可用作彩色电视机的荧光粉，这些荧光粉发出闪亮的红色，用来制造电视荧光屏；激光材料等。Eu3 用于红色荧光粉的激活 剂，Eu2 用于蓝色荧光粉。现在Y2O2S:Eu3 是发光效率、涂敷稳定性、回收成本等最好的荧光粉。再加上对提高发光效率和对比度等技术的改进，故 正在被广泛应用。

2、近年氧化铕还用于新型X射线医疗诊断系统的受激发射荧光粉。

3、氧化铕还可用于制造有色镜片和光学滤光片，用于磁泡贮存器件，在原子反应堆的控制材料、屏蔽材料和结构材料中也能一展身手。因它的原子比任何其他元素都能吸收更多的中子，所以常用于原子反应堆中作吸收中子的材料。

铕 - 发现

氧化铕

   铕是稀土金属中的一种。稀土是历史遗留的名称，从18世纪末叶开始被陆续发现。当时人们惯于把不溶于水的固体氧化物称作土，例如把氧化铝叫做陶土，氧化镁 叫苦土。稀土是以氧化物状态分离出来，很稀少，因而得名稀土，稀土元素的原子序数是21（Sc）、39（Y）、57（La）至71（Lu）。它们的化学性 质很相似，这是由于核外电子结构特点所决定的。它们一般均生成三价化合物。钪的化学性质与其它稀土差别明显，一般稀土矿物中不含钪。钷是从铀反应堆裂变产 物中获得，放射性元素147Pm半衰期2.7年。过去认为钷在自然界中不存在，直到1965年，荷兰的一个磷酸盐工厂在处理磷灰石中，才发现了钷的痕量成 分。因此，中国1968年将钷划入64种有色金属之外。 1787年瑞典人阿累尼斯（C.A.Arrhenius）在斯德哥尔摩（Stockholm）附近的伊特比（Ytterby）小镇上寻得了一块不寻常的黑 色矿石，1794年芬兰化 学家加多林（J.Gadolin）研究了这种矿石，从其中分离出一种新物质，三年后（1797年），瑞典人爱克伯格（A.G.Ekeberg）证实了这一 发现，并以发现地名给新的物质命名为Ytteia(钇土)。后来为了纪念加多林，称这种矿石为Gadolinite(加多林矿，即硅铍钇矿)。

    1803年德国化学家克拉普罗兹（M.H.Klaproth）和瑞典化学家柏 齐力阿斯（J.J.Berzelius）及希生格尔（W.Hisinger）同时分别从另一矿石（铈硅矿）中发现了另一种新的物质---铈土 （Ceria）。1839年瑞典人莫桑得尔（C.G.Mosander）发现了镧和镨钕混合物（didymium）。1885年奥地利人威斯巴克 （A.V.Welsbach）从莫桑得尔认为是“新元素”的镨钕混合物中发现了镨和钕。1879年法国人布瓦普德朗（L.D.Boisbauder）发现 了钐。1901年法国人德马尔赛（E.A.Demarcay）发现了铕。1880年瑞士马利纳克（J.C.G.De Marignac）发现了钆。1843年莫桑得尔发现了铽和铒。1886年布瓦普德朗发现了镝。1879年瑞典人克利夫（P.T.Cleve）发现了钬和 铥。1974年美国人马瑞斯克（J.A.Marisky）等从铀裂产物中得到钷。1879年瑞典人尼尔松（L.F.Nilson）发现了钪。从1794年 加多林分离出钇土至1947年制得钷，历时150多年。

铕 - 钒酸钇:铕

钒 酸钇：铕，yttrium vanadate activated by europium，分子式：YVO4：Eu，白色粉末。立方晶系锆石型结构。相对密度4.2。为发光材料，在253.7nm紫外线激发下可发出红色荧光， 主峰波长620nm。粉的量子效率约100%，激发光的反射率0.049。单色日光灯照明效率约为44.0 lm/W，在阴极射线激发下光视效能253 lm/W。主要用作高压汞灯、彩色电视显示管荧光粉。

铕 - 三氧化二铕

 中文名称：乙二胺；1，2-二氨基乙烷

【英文名称】ethylenediamine; 1,2-diaminoethane

【相对分子量或原子量】60.11

【密度】0.8994

【熔点（℃）】8.5

【沸点（℃）】117.1

【闪点（℃）】33.9

【蒸气压（Pa）】1200（20℃）

【粘度 mPa•s（20℃）】1.54（25℃）

【折射率】1.4540（26℃）

【性状】：氨气味的无色透明粘稠液体。

【溶解情况】：溶于水和乙醇，不溶于乙醚和苯。

【用途】：用于制染料、橡胶硫化促进剂、药物、农药杀菌剂、氨基树脂、乙二胺脲醛树脂、金属螯合剂EDTA等。液用作清蛋白、纤维蛋白等的溶剂。

【制备或来源】：由氨与乙醇胺或二氯乙烷或二溴乙烷作用而得。

【其他】：能与蒸汽一同挥发，在空气中灰发烟。有碱性。有毒。对眼睛、呼吸道、皮肤有刺激性。能吸收空气中的二氧化碳并能与无机酸生成溶于水的盐类。

引用出處： 

 http://www.hudong.com/wiki/%E9%93%95

歡迎來到Bewise Inc.的世界，首先恭喜您來到這接受新的資訊讓產業更有競爭力，我們是提供專業刀具製造商，應對客戶高品質的刀具需求，我們可以協助客戶滿足您對產業的不同要求，我們有能力達到非常卓越的客戶需求品質，這是現有相關技術無法比擬的，我們成功的滿足了各行各業的要求，包括：精密HSS DIN切削刀具、協助客戶設計刀具流程、DIN or JIS 鎢鋼切削刀具設計、NAS986 NAS965 NAS897 NAS937orNAS907 航太切削刀具,NAS航太刀具設計、超高硬度的切削刀具、醫療配件刀具設計、複合式再研磨機、PCD地板專用企口鑽石組合刀具、粉末造粒成型機、主機版專用頂級電桿、PCBN刀具、PCD刀具、單晶刀具、PCD V-Cut刀、捨棄式圓鋸片組、粉末成型機、航空機械鉸刀、主機版專用頂級電感、’汽車業刀具設計、電子產業鑽石刀具、木工產業鑽石刀具、銑刀與切斷複合再研磨機、銑刀與鑽頭複合再研磨機、銑刀與螺絲攻複合再研磨機等等。我們的產品涵蓋了從民生刀具到工業級的刀具設計；從微細刀具到大型刀具；從小型生產到大型量產；全自動整合；我們的技術可提供您連續生產的效能，我們整體的服務及卓越的技術，恭迎您親自體驗！！  

BW Bewise Inc. Willy Chen willy@tool-tool.com  bw@tool-tool.com  www.tool-tool.com skype:willy_chen_bw mobile:0937-618-190 Head &Administration Office No.13,Shiang Shang 2nd St., West Chiu Taichung,Taiwan 40356 http://www.tool-tool.com/ / FAX:+886 4 2471 4839 N.Branch 5F,No.460,Fu Shin North Rd.,Taipei,Taiwan S.Branch No.24,Sec.1,Chia Pu East Rd.,Taipao City,Chiayi Hsien,Taiwan

Welcome to BW tool world! We are an experienced tool maker specialized in cutting tools. We focus on what you need and endeavor to research the best cutter to satisfy users’ demand. Our customers involve wide range of industries, like mold & die, aerospace, electronic, machinery, etc. We are professional expert in cutting field. We would like to solve every problem from you. Please feel free to contact us, its our pleasure to serve for you. BW product including: cutting tool、aerospace tool .HSS  DIN Cutting tool、Carbide end mills、Carbide cutting tool、NAS Cutting tool、NAS986 NAS965 NAS897 NAS937orNAS907 Cutting Tools,Carbide end mill、disc milling cutter,Aerospace cutting tool、hss drill’Фрезеры’Carbide drill、High speed steel、Compound Sharpener’Milling cutter、INDUCTORS FOR PCD’CVDD(Chemical Vapor Deposition Diamond )’PCBN (Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride) ’Core drill、Tapered end mills、CVD Diamond Tools Inserts’PCD Edge-Beveling Cutter(Golden Finger’PCD V-Cutter’PCD Wood tools’PCD Cutting tools’PCD Circular Saw Blade’PVDD End Mills’diamond tool. INDUCTORS FOR PCD . POWDER FORMING MACHINE ‘Single Crystal Diamond ‘Metric end mills、Miniature end mills、Специальные режущие инструменты ‘Пустотелое сверло ‘Pilot reamer、Fraises’Fresas con mango’ PCD (Polycrystalline diamond) ‘Frese’POWDER FORMING MACHINE’Electronics cutter、Step drill、Metal cutting saw、Double margin drill、Gun barrel、Angle milling cutter、Carbide burrs、Carbide tipped cutter、Chamfering tool、IC card engraving cutter、Side cutter、Staple Cutter’PCD diamond cutter specialized in grooving floors’V-Cut PCD Circular Diamond Tipped Saw Blade with Indexable Insert’ PCD Diamond Tool’ Saw Blade with Indexable Insert’NAS tool、DIN or JIS tool、Special tool、Metal slitting saws、Shell end mills、Side and face milling cutters、Side chip clearance saws、Long end mills’end mill grinder’drill grinder’sharpener、Stub roughing end mills、Dovetail milling cutters、Carbide slot drills、Carbide torus cutters、Angel carbide end mills、Carbide torus cutters、Carbide ball-nosed slot drills、Mould cutter、Tool manufacturer. 

Bewise Inc.  www.tool-tool.com

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弊社は専門なエンド・ミルの製造メーカーで、客先に色んな分野のニーズ、

豊富なパリエーションを満足させ、特にハイテク品質要求にサポート致します。

弊社は各領域に供給できる内容は：

（１）精密ＨＳＳエンド・ミルのＲ＆Ｄ

（２）Carbide Cutting tools設計

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弊社の製品の供給調達機能は：

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（４）オートメーション整備調達

（５）スポット対応～流れ生産対応

弊社の全般供給体制及び技術自慢の総合専門製造メーカーに貴方のご体験を御待ちしております。     

Bewise Inc. talaşlı imalat sanayinde en fazla kullanılan ve üç eksende (x,y,z) talaş kaldırabilen freze takımlarından olan Parmak Freze imalatçısıdır. Çok geniş ürün yelpazesine sahip olan firmanın başlıca ürünlerini Karbür Parmak Frezeler, Kalıpçı Frezeleri, Kaba Talaş Frezeleri, Konik Alın Frezeler, Köşe Radyüs Frezeler, İki Ağızlı Kısa ve Uzun Küresel Frezeler, İç Bükey Frezeler vb. şeklinde sıralayabiliriz. 

BW специализируется в научных исследованиях и разработках, и снабжаем самым высокотехнологичным карбидовым материалом для поставки режущих / фрезеровочных инструментов для почвы, воздушного пространства и электронной индустрии. В нашу основную продукцию входит твердый карбид / быстрорежущая сталь, а также двигатели, микроэлектрические дрели, IC картонорезальные машины, фрезы для гравирования, режущие пилы, фрезеры-расширители, фрезеры-расширители с резцом, дрели, резаки форм для шлицевого вала / звездочки роликовой цепи, и специальные нано инструменты. Пожалуйста, посетите сайт  www.tool-tool.com  для получения большей информации.

BW is specialized in R&D and sourcing the most advanced carbide material with high-tech coating to supply cutting / milling tool for mould & die, aero space and electronic industry. Our main products include solid carbide / HSS end mills, micro electronic drill, IC card cutter, engraving cutter, shell end mills, cutting saw, reamer, thread reamer, leading drill, involute gear cutter for spur wheel, rack and worm milling cutter, thread milling cutter, form cutters for spline shaft/roller chain sprocket, and special tool, with nano grade. Please visit our web  www.tool-tool.com  for more info.

钐，原子序数62，原子量150.36，元素名来源于发现它的矿石名。1879年法国化学家布瓦博得朗从萨马尔斯克矿石中分离出氧化钐，并用光谱鉴定为一种新元素；1901年法国德马尔盖制得钐的高纯化合物。钐在地壳中的含量为0.000647%，主要存在于稀土矿物中。

纠错 编辑摘要

目录

• 1 概述
• 2 性质
• 3 发现历史
• 4 特性
• 5 参考资料

• 1 概述
• 2 性质
• 3 发现历史
• 4 特性
• 5 参考资料

钐 - 概述

钐

钐 为银白色金属，熔点1077°C，沸点1791°C，密度7.52克/厘米³，是稀土元素中最易挥发的元素之一。钐在空气中比较稳定，在化合物中主要以三 价氧化态存在。钐具有很高的热中子俘获截面，可作核反应控制棒和中子吸收材料；钐钴合金具有高剩磁、高矫顽力和最大磁能积等性能，广泛用于行波管、高频管 和各种微波设备等方面。

自莫桑德尔先后发现镧、铒和铽以后，各国化学家特别注意从已发现的稀土元素去分离新的元素。1878年法国光谱学 家、化学家德拉丰坦就从莫桑德尔发现的称为didymium的元素中发现了一种新元素，称为decipium。但1879年，法国另一位化学家布瓦博德朗 利利用光谱分析，确定decipium是一些未知和已知稀土元素的混合物，并从中分离出当时未知一种新元素，命名它为samarium，元素符号Sa，也 就是钐。

钐 - 性质

元素名称：钐

元素原子量：150.4

元素类型：金属

原子体积:(立方厘米/摩尔)：19.95

元素在太阳中的含量:(ppm)：0.001

元素在海水中的含量:(ppm)：太平洋表面  0.0000004

地壳中含量：（ppm）：7.9

晶体结构：晶胞为三斜晶胞。

氧化态：Main  Sm+3

Other  Sm+2

维氏硬度：412MPa    

声音在其中的传播速率：（m/S） 2130

金属钐

电离能 (kJ /mol) 

M - M+ 543.3

M+ - M2+ 1068

M2+ - M3+ 2260

M3+ - M4+ 3990

晶胞参数：

a = 362.1 pm

b = 362.1 pm

c = 2625 pm

α = 90°

β = 90°

γ = 120°

相对原子质量：150.4 

常见化合价：+2,+3 

电负性：1.17 

外围电子排布：4f6 6s2 

核外电子排布：2,8,18,24,8,2 

同位素及放射线：Sm-144 Sm-145[340d] Sm-146[1.03E8y] Sm-147(放

钐

α[1.06E11y]) Sm-148(放 α[7.0E15y]) Sm-149(放 α) Sm-150 Sm-151[90y] *Sm-152 Sm-153[1.92d] Sm-154

电子亲合和能：0 KJ•mol-1

第一电离能：543 KJ•mol-1

第二电离能：1068 KJ•mol-1

第三电离能： 0 KJ•mol-1

单质密度：7.54 g/cm3

单质熔点：1072.0 ℃

单质沸点：1900.0 ℃

原子半径：2.59 埃

离子半径：1.08(+3) 埃

共价半径：1.62 埃

发现人：德•布瓦博德朗（L.deBoisbaubran） 发现年代：1879年

发现过程：1879年德•布瓦博德朗（L.deBoisbaubran）发现的。

钐 - 发现历史

钐是稀土金属中的一种。稀土是历史遗留的名称，从18世纪末叶开始被陆续发现。当时人们惯于把不溶于水的固体氧化物称作土，例如把氧化铝叫做陶土，氧化镁叫苦土。稀土是以氧化物状态分离出来，很稀少，因而得名稀土，稀土元素的原子序数是21（Sc）、39（Y）、57（

钐钴

La） 至71（Lu）。它们的化学性质很相似，这是由于核外电子结构特点所决定的。它们一般均生成三价化合物。钪的化学性质与其它稀土差别明显，一般稀土矿物中 不含钪。钷是从铀反应堆裂变产物中获得，放射性元素147Pm半衰期2.7年。过去认为钷在自然界中不存在，直到1965年，荷兰的一个磷酸盐工厂在处理 磷灰石中，才发现了钷的痕量成分。因此，中国1968年将钷划入64种有色金属之外。 1787年瑞典人阿累尼斯（C.A.Arrhenius）在斯德哥尔摩（Stockholm）附近的伊特比（Ytterby）小镇上寻得了一块不寻常的黑 色矿石，1794年芬兰化 学家加多林（J.Gadolin）研究了这种矿石，从其中分离出一种新物质，三年后（1797年），瑞典人爱克伯格（A.G.Ekeberg）证实了这一 发现，并以发现地名给新的物质命名为Ytteia(钇土)。后来为了纪念加多林，称这种矿石为Gadolinite(加多林矿，即硅铍钇矿)。

1803 年德国化学家克拉普罗兹（M.H.Klaproth）和瑞典化学家柏齐力阿斯（J.J.Berzelius）及希生格尔（W.Hisinger）同时分别 从另一矿石（铈硅矿）中发现了另一种新的物质---铈土（Ceria）。1839年瑞典人莫桑得尔（C.G.Mosander）发现了镧和镨钕混合物 （didymium）。1885年奥地利人威斯巴克（A.V.Welsbach）从莫桑得尔认为是“新元素”的镨钕混合物中发现了镨和钕。1879年法国 人布瓦普德朗（L.D.Boisbauder）发现了钐。1901年法国人德马尔赛（E.A.Demarcay）发现了铕。1880年瑞士马利纳克 （J.C.G.De Marignac）发现了钆。1843年莫桑得尔发现了铽和铒。1886年布瓦普德朗发现了镝。1879年瑞典人克利夫（P.T.Cleve）发现了钬和 铥。1974年美国人马瑞斯克（J.A.Marisky）等从铀裂产物中得到钷。1879年瑞典人尼尔松（L.F.Nilson）发现了钪。从1794年 加多林分离出钇土至1947年制得钷，历时150多年。

钐 - 特性

稀土金属的光泽介于银和铁之间。杂质含量

氧化钐

对 它们的性质影响很大，因而载于文献中物理性质常有明显差异。镧在6°K时是超导体。大多数稀土金属呈现顺磁性，钆在0℃时比铁具有更强的铁磁性。铽、镝、 钬、铒等 在低温下也呈现铁磁性。镧、铈的低熔点和钐、铕、镱的高蒸气压表现出稀土金属的物理性质有极大差异。钐、铕、钆的热中子吸收截面比广泛用于核反应堆控制材 料的镉、硼还大。稀土金属具有可塑性，以钐和意为最好。除镱外，钇组稀土较铈组稀土具有更高的硬度。稀土金属的化学活性很强。当和氧作用时，生成稳定性很 高的R2O3型氧化物（R表示稀土金属）。铈、镨、铽还生成CeO2、Pr6O11、TbO2型氧化物。

它们的标准生成 热和标准自由焓负值比钙、铝、镁氧化物的值还大。稀土氧化物的熔点在2000℃以上，铕的原子半径最大，性质最活泼，在室温下暴露于空气中立即失去光泽， 很快氧化成粉末。镧、铈、镨、钕也易于氧化，在表面生成氧化物薄膜。金属钇、钆、镥的抗腐蚀性强，能较长时间地保持其金属光 泽。稀土金属能以不同速率与水反应。铕与冷水剧烈反应释放出氢。铈组稀土金属在室温下与水反应缓慢，温度增高则反应加快。钇组稀土金属则较为稳定。稀土金 属在高温下与卤素反应生成+2、+3、+4价的卤化物。无水卤化物吸水性很强，很容易水解生成ROX（X表示卤素）型卤氧化合物。稀土金属还能和硼、碳、 硫、氢、氮反应生成相应的化合物。

元素描述：

银白色金属，似铁一样硬。在空气中很快变暗，加热到150℃即着火，燃烧生成氧化物。天然存在的同位素有144Sm、147Sm~150Sm、152Sm和154Sm。

引用出處： 

 http://www.hudong.com/wiki/%E9%92%90

歡迎來到Bewise Inc.的世界，首先恭喜您來到這接受新的資訊讓產業更有競爭力，我們是提供專業刀具製造商，應對客戶高品質的刀具需求，我們可以協助客戶滿足您對產業的不同要求，我們有能力達到非常卓越的客戶需求品質，這是現有相關技術無法比擬的，我們成功的滿足了各行各業的要求，包括：精密HSS DIN切削刀具、協助客戶設計刀具流程、DIN or JIS 鎢鋼切削刀具設計、NAS986 NAS965 NAS897 NAS937orNAS907 航太切削刀具,NAS航太刀具設計、超高硬度的切削刀具、醫療配件刀具設計、複合式再研磨機、PCD地板專用企口鑽石組合刀具、粉末造粒成型機、主機版專用頂級電桿、PCBN刀具、PCD刀具、單晶刀具、PCD V-Cut刀、捨棄式圓鋸片組、粉末成型機、航空機械鉸刀、主機版專用頂級電感、’汽車業刀具設計、電子產業鑽石刀具、木工產業鑽石刀具、銑刀與切斷複合再研磨機、銑刀與鑽頭複合再研磨機、銑刀與螺絲攻複合再研磨機等等。我們的產品涵蓋了從民生刀具到工業級的刀具設計；從微細刀具到大型刀具；從小型生產到大型量產；全自動整合；我們的技術可提供您連續生產的效能，我們整體的服務及卓越的技術，恭迎您親自體驗！！  

BW Bewise Inc. Willy Chen willy@tool-tool.com  bw@tool-tool.com  www.tool-tool.com skype:willy_chen_bw mobile:0937-618-190 Head &Administration Office No.13,Shiang Shang 2nd St., West Chiu Taichung,Taiwan 40356 http://www.tool-tool.com/ / FAX:+886 4 2471 4839 N.Branch 5F,No.460,Fu Shin North Rd.,Taipei,Taiwan S.Branch No.24,Sec.1,Chia Pu East Rd.,Taipao City,Chiayi Hsien,Taiwan

Welcome to BW tool world! We are an experienced tool maker specialized in cutting tools. We focus on what you need and endeavor to research the best cutter to satisfy users’ demand. Our customers involve wide range of industries, like mold & die, aerospace, electronic, machinery, etc. We are professional expert in cutting field. We would like to solve every problem from you. Please feel free to contact us, its our pleasure to serve for you. BW product including: cutting tool、aerospace tool .HSS  DIN Cutting tool、Carbide end mills、Carbide cutting tool、NAS Cutting tool、NAS986 NAS965 NAS897 NAS937orNAS907 Cutting Tools,Carbide end mill、disc milling cutter,Aerospace cutting tool、hss drill’Фрезеры’Carbide drill、High speed steel、Compound Sharpener’Milling cutter、INDUCTORS FOR PCD’CVDD(Chemical Vapor Deposition Diamond )’PCBN (Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride) ’Core drill、Tapered end mills、CVD Diamond Tools Inserts’PCD Edge-Beveling Cutter(Golden Finger’PCD V-Cutter’PCD Wood tools’PCD Cutting tools’PCD Circular Saw Blade’PVDD End Mills’diamond tool. INDUCTORS FOR PCD . POWDER FORMING MACHINE ‘Single Crystal Diamond ‘Metric end mills、Miniature end mills、Специальные режущие инструменты ‘Пустотелое сверло ‘Pilot reamer、Fraises’Fresas con mango’ PCD (Polycrystalline diamond) ‘Frese’POWDER FORMING MACHINE’Electronics cutter、Step drill、Metal cutting saw、Double margin drill、Gun barrel、Angle milling cutter、Carbide burrs、Carbide tipped cutter、Chamfering tool、IC card engraving cutter、Side cutter、Staple Cutter’PCD diamond cutter specialized in grooving floors’V-Cut PCD Circular Diamond Tipped Saw Blade with Indexable Insert’ PCD Diamond Tool’ Saw Blade with Indexable Insert’NAS tool、DIN or JIS tool、Special tool、Metal slitting saws、Shell end mills、Side and face milling cutters、Side chip clearance saws、Long end mills’end mill grinder’drill grinder’sharpener、Stub roughing end mills、Dovetail milling cutters、Carbide slot drills、Carbide torus cutters、Angel carbide end mills、Carbide torus cutters、Carbide ball-nosed slot drills、Mould cutter、Tool manufacturer. 

Bewise Inc.  www.tool-tool.com

ようこそＢｅｗｉｓｅ　Ｉｎｃ.の世界へお越し下さいませ、先ず御目出度たいのは新たな

情報を受け取って頂き、もっと各産業に競争力プラス展開。

弊社は専門なエンド・ミルの製造メーカーで、客先に色んな分野のニーズ、

豊富なパリエーションを満足させ、特にハイテク品質要求にサポート致します。

弊社は各領域に供給できる内容は：

（１）精密ＨＳＳエンド・ミルのＲ＆Ｄ

（２）Carbide Cutting tools設計

（３）鎢鋼エンド・ミル設計

（４）航空エンド・ミル設計

（５）超高硬度エンド・ミル

（６）ダイヤモンド・エンド・ミル

（７）医療用品エンド・ミル設計

（８）自動車部品＆材料加工向けエンド・ミル設計

弊社の製品の供給調達機能は：

（１）生活産業～ハイテク工業までのエンド・ミル設計

（２）ミクロ・エンド・ミル～大型エンド・ミル供給

（３）小Ｌｏｔ生産～大量発注対応供給

（４）オートメーション整備調達

（５）スポット対応～流れ生産対応

弊社の全般供給体制及び技術自慢の総合専門製造メーカーに貴方のご体験を御待ちしております。     

Bewise Inc. talaşlı imalat sanayinde en fazla kullanılan ve üç eksende (x,y,z) talaş kaldırabilen freze takımlarından olan Parmak Freze imalatçısıdır. Çok geniş ürün yelpazesine sahip olan firmanın başlıca ürünlerini Karbür Parmak Frezeler, Kalıpçı Frezeleri, Kaba Talaş Frezeleri, Konik Alın Frezeler, Köşe Radyüs Frezeler, İki Ağızlı Kısa ve Uzun Küresel Frezeler, İç Bükey Frezeler vb. şeklinde sıralayabiliriz. 

BW специализируется в научных исследованиях и разработках, и снабжаем самым высокотехнологичным карбидовым материалом для поставки режущих / фрезеровочных инструментов для почвы, воздушного пространства и электронной индустрии. В нашу основную продукцию входит твердый карбид / быстрорежущая сталь, а также двигатели, микроэлектрические дрели, IC картонорезальные машины, фрезы для гравирования, режущие пилы, фрезеры-расширители, фрезеры-расширители с резцом, дрели, резаки форм для шлицевого вала / звездочки роликовой цепи, и специальные нано инструменты. Пожалуйста, посетите сайт  www.tool-tool.com  для получения большей информации.

BW is specialized in R&D and sourcing the most advanced carbide material with high-tech coating to supply cutting / milling tool for mould & die, aero space and electronic industry. Our main products include solid carbide / HSS end mills, micro electronic drill, IC card cutter, engraving cutter, shell end mills, cutting saw, reamer, thread reamer, leading drill, involute gear cutter for spur wheel, rack and worm milling cutter, thread milling cutter, form cutters for spline shaft/roller chain sprocket, and special tool, with nano grade. Please visit our web  www.tool-tool.com  for more info.